Types of walls: elements, basic requirements. Basic structural elements of buildings What are the walls made of?

External walls are the most complex design building. They are subjected to numerous and varied force and non-force influences (Fig. 17.1). Load-bearing external walls bear the load from their own mass and temporary loads from floors and roofs supported on the walls, exposure to wind, uneven deformations of the base, seismicity, etc. From the outside, external walls are exposed to solar radiation, precipitation, variable temperatures and humidity of the outside air , street noise, and from the inside - exposure heat flow and water vapor flow (Fig. 17.1).

Performing the functions of an external fence, the main structural and compositional element facades, and often load-bearing structure, the outer wall must meet the requirements of strength, durability and fire resistance corresponding to the capital class of the building, provide a favorable temperature and humidity regime of the enclosed premises, have decorative qualities, protect premises from adverse external influences. At the same time, the design of the outer wall must satisfy the general technical requirements of industry and minimum material consumption, as well as economic requirements. At the same time, it is necessary to both save one-time costs during construction, since external walls are the most expensive structure (up to 25% of the cost of building structures), and reduce operating costs for heating the building, since the main heat losses occur through the external walls and their elements.

External walls usually contain openings for side lighting of rooms and openings into open summer rooms of balconies and loggias, therefore, the complex wall structure includes casement translucent filling of openings and structures of open rooms. All these elements and their connections with the walls must also meet the requirements listed above. In walls made of prefabricated elements, this complex also includes joints of external wall elements with each other and with internal structures. The static functions of walls and their insulating properties are ensured by interaction with internal structures, therefore the design of external walls includes the development of their connections with internal walls, ceilings, and frames.

External walls (as well as all other building structures), depending on the natural-climatic, engineering-geological conditions of construction and the specifics of the building solution, are cut with vertical expansion joints various types- temperature-shrinkage, sedimentary, anti-seismic, etc. (Fig. 17.2).

Temperature shrinkage seams arranged to avoid the formation of cracks and distortions in the walls caused by the concentration of forces from the effects of variable air temperatures and shrinkage of materials (masonry, concrete). Such seams cut only the ground part of the building.

The distances between the seams (the length of the building's temperature compartment) are determined by calculation in accordance with the climatic conditions of construction and the physical and technical parameters of the materials of the external walls. The lengths of the compartments range from 40 to 100 m for brick walls and from 75-150 m for panel walls. At the same time, the smallest sizes of temperature compartments refer to the most severe climatic conditions.

Sedimentary seams are provided in places of sharp changes in the number of storeys of the building (type I sedimentary joints), as well as in case of significant uneven deformations of the base along the length of the building, caused by the specifics geological structure foundations (type II sedimentary joints). Type I sedimentary joints are installed to compensate for the difference in vertical deformations of the high and low parts of the building. For this purpose, the support of the floors of the low part on the supporting structure of the high part of the building designed with a hinge and the design of the settlement seam is carried out similarly to the temperature-shrinkable one.

In case of rigid junctions of the high and low parts of the building, as well as in cases of large uneven deformations, the base of the building is cut into rigid sections with vertical seams along the entire height - right up to the base of the foundation.

In special engineering-geological conditions, for example, seismic, cutting with expansion joints divides the building into elementary rectangular sections and is carried out along the entire height of the building from the roof to the base of the foundation. The length of the compartments is assigned by calculation in accordance with the estimated seismicity of the construction area and the physical and technical properties of the materials of the supporting structures.

External wall structures are classified according to the following criteria:

• the static function of the wall, determined by its role in the structural system of the building;
• material and technology for constructing the wall, determined by the building’s construction system;
• constructive solution- in the form of a single-layer or layered enclosing structure.

Load-bearing walls in addition to the vertical load from their own mass, they absorb loads from all structures resting on the walls (roofs, ceilings, balconies, bay windows, parapets, etc.) and transmit it through the foundations to the base.

Self-supporting walls perceive the load only from their own mass, including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other elements of the wall itself, and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, rand beams, grillage or other structures.

Non-structural structures walls floor by floor (or through several floors) are supported by adjacent internal structures of the building (ceilings, internal walls, frame).

In buildings with non-load-bearing external walls made of sheet materials, they are sometimes used mounted structures with special hanging elements on the internal structures of buildings.

Load-bearing walls, along with vertical loads, also absorb horizontal impacts, being vertical elements of rigidity of structures. In buildings with non-load-bearing external walls, the functions of vertical stiffening elements are performed by the frame, internal walls, diaphragms or stiffening trunks.

Load-bearing and non-load-bearing external walls can be used in buildings of any number of floors. The height itself load-bearing walls are limited in order to prevent operationally unfavorable mutual displacements of self-supporting and internal load-bearing structures, accompanied by local damage to the finishing of the premises and the appearance of cracks. In panel houses, for example, it is permissible to use self-supporting walls with a building height of no more than 5 floors. The stability of self-supporting walls is ensured by flexible connections with internal structures.

The maximum number of floors of a load-bearing wall depends on bearing capacity and the deformability of its material, design, the nature of the relationship with internal structures, as well as economic considerations. So, for example, the use of layered load-bearing panel walls is advisable in buildings up to 17 floors high, load-bearing brick walls in mid-rise buildings, and load-bearing steel shell structures in 70-100 storey buildings.

The main characteristic of the constructive solution of the outer wall is its layering.

Traditional for the walls of any building system is a single-layer construction: from brick (or blocks of natural stone) - solid masonry, from wood - a chopped wall made of logs or beams, in concrete housing construction - single layer wall from lightweight or autoclaved cellular concrete.

Until the mid-1990s, single-layer construction in Russia was the main one for all building systems buildings, accounting for over 80% of the total construction volume.

Layered structures, for example in the form of lightweight brick walls, were used mainly to save one-time costs. Due to their reduced load-bearing capacity, they were used as load-bearing mainly in buildings up to 5 floors or for upper floors multi-storey.

The policy of saving energy costs for heating buildings at the state level was reflected in a radical increase in the requirements for heat transfer resistance of all enclosing external structures, reflected in SNiP 11-3-79*, put into effect by the Ministry of Construction of the Russian Federation in March 1998.

New standards (even for regions of the Russian Federation with a temperate climate) required an increase of 2.8-3.5 times in the heat transfer resistance of external walls compared to the previous design standards that had been in force for 70 years and all historical experience construction.

In practice, this meant increasing the thickness of a single-layer solid masonry brick wall from 51 cm to 155 cm, a lightweight concrete panel wall from 30-38 cm to 90-105 cm, a wall made of cellular autoclaved concrete from 25 to 75 cm, and wooden frame walls to 60 cm. In connection With the obvious uneconomical nature of such structures, a radical transition is taking place from single-layer structures to layered ones with effective insulation.

Accordingly, this is accompanied by a restructuring of the building materials and industrial products industry for external walls.

Due to the fact that for most structures the transition from single-layer walls to layered structures leads to a decrease in their load-bearing capacity, the choice of structural systems of buildings is also subject to revision. For load-bearing layered structures of external walls, the main area of ​​application remains low and medium-rise buildings, both with longitudinal and transverse internal walls. In multi-storey buildings, the main structural systems are transverse and cross-wall or frame with non-load-bearing external walls.

The area of ​​rational use of single-layer external walls is sharply limited to areas with a hot climate, as well as individual low-rise construction.

Along with radical revisions in the design of external walls and structural systems of buildings, there is a sharp expansion in the types of building construction systems. Along with the traditional frameless system of houses with brick walls and the most industrial panel ones, prefabricated monolithic and monolithic systems of various modifications are being widely introduced, affecting the design curtain walls new generation, urgently introduced into the construction of multi-storey capital buildings with industrial construction technology.

Walls must - protect, protect, and please the eye. Walls are the heaviest, most labor-intensive and most expensive building structure.

By the nature of load perception walls can be load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Load-bearing walls bear the load from their own weight, the weight of floors and coverings, as well as from the wind. They transfer the load to the foundations, and non-load-bearing ones (interior partitions) - to the floors.

It is quite easy to distinguish them. The load-bearing wall is a natural extension and integral element building structure, serves as a support for beams or concrete slabs interfloor ceiling, that is, it carries some kind of load. Try to mentally remove it: if this violates the integrity of the structure, it is a load-bearing wall.

A curtain wall is, as a rule, an ordinary internal partition of a house, designed to divide a volume into several parts or highlight functional areas in a room.

It is made from lighter materials. Its dismantling does not entail a redistribution of loads in the building structure.

Walls are divided into:

Monolithic;

Small and large block;

Panel and panel;

Frame;

Prefabricated (log and lumber);

Combined.

Construction materials

Wall materials are selected taking into account the design concept, strength, durability, required comfort and external expressiveness.

Wood (logs, beams, one- and two-layer frames covered with boards) is a traditional material for individual construction. Wooden log house- a home based on centuries-old traditions. Such a house is not afraid of frost, especially when it has a fireplace or stove.

It could also be a more modern building stylized as a hut, in which logs and profiled beams (solid or glued) are only the finishing, and inside the walls there is mineral wool insulation. The most serious disadvantages of such walls are fire hazard and high cost, as well as (if solid timber is used) shrinkage deformations during the first 2–3 years of operation.

Special case wooden house- frame. Up to 80% of private housing around the world is built using this technology, although our compatriots are still skeptical about it.

The basis of such a house is wooden frame from timber, installed on columnar foundations. Its walls resemble a sandwich. The filling is usually mineral wool insulation. On the outside, it is covered with moisture-resistant plywood or OSB boards, which are finished with facade plaster, sheathed with siding or faced with brick.

Interior finishing is made of plasterboard. In the West, fastening points for the elements of a frame house (frame posts to the foundation, beams to posts and rafters to beams) are thought out at the design stage and, precisely executed by the builders, allow the house to withstand even during a hurricane.

Stone walls most durable and durable. The materials used are cobblestone, limestone, shell rock, tuff, and sandstone. According to their own thermal insulation properties stone walls are significantly inferior to many others. Their use is advisable only in the southern regions. In the middle zone, stone is more often used for constructing plinths, laying fences and retaining walls.

Concrete- economical, durable and fire-resistant wall material. A wall made of monolithic reinforced concrete or heavy concrete blocks has a high load-bearing capacity, but low heat and sound insulation properties. To rid concrete of these shortcomings, it is given a porous structure. Such concrete is called cellular concrete.

Another way to increase the insulating properties of concrete is to make the aggregate porous. That's how they get it expanded clay concrete blocks(filler - expanded clay, which is foamed and baked clay), slag concrete blocks (filler - fuel slag), sawdust concrete blocks (concrete with the addition of wood waste).

Another modern technology using concrete is “Thermodome”. This building is constructed from monolithic concrete using stationary permanent formwork in the form of hollow polystyrene foam blocks, which act as thermal insulation after concrete has hardened.

Brick, without exaggeration, the most popular wall material. A brick house is considered safer for health compared, for example, to a concrete one. Recently, brick has undergone significant improvements: not only the range of products is expanding, but also new technologies for lightweight masonry are being developed.

But there is no point in drawing a clear conclusion that brick is good and all other materials are bad.

Heat saving

There are three options for insulation depending on the location of the insulation in the building envelope: on the inside, in the thickness of the wall and outside.

Insulation from the inside has two disadvantages: a reduction in the area of ​​the room and the danger of moisture condensation in the insulation layer, which can lead to dampness, mold, and subsequently even destruction of the wall. When finishing with plasterboard, a dew point may appear on the surface of the insulation in the place where it adjoins the wall, but only if moisture from the room penetrates there.

To prevent this, a vapor barrier layer (in other words, a film) is provided, which is located between the insulation and internal lining. Thus, steam is removed from the room using ventilation.

Insulation “inside the wall” is used, for example, in frame wooden houses and in well brickwork. In the latter case, the thickness of the inner layer is determined by strength indicators, and for the outer layer, which protects the insulation from external influences, face or plastered bricks are used.

External insulation is the so-called “ wet type» (with plastering or facade cladding) and a hinged ventilated facade.

The “wet” type insulation system consists of three layers: thermal insulation (mineral wool or expanded polystyrene board), reinforced (represents an adhesive composition reinforced with a mesh) and protective and decorative. This system has many advantages: evaporation of condensate, heat accumulation in the enclosing structure, absence of thermal deformations of the load-bearing wall and efflorescence on facades, increased sound insulation, and the possibility of application on both new and reconstructed buildings. Disadvantages include the seasonality of the work.

The effectiveness of a wet system depends on the compatibility of the layers. Its components are usually manufactured by various manufacturers, but one company, its developer, takes responsibility for the high-quality operation of the system.

A hinged ventilated facade consists of a cladding (slabs or sheet materials) and a sub-cladding structure, which is attached to the wall in such a way that there is a gap for air between the protective and decorative coating and the wall. If the wall is additionally insulated and thermal insulation material is attached to it, a gap is left between the cladding and the insulation.

Curtain facades allow load-bearing structures to work in “greenhouse” conditions: in the cold season the wall remains dry and warm, and in the summer it remains cool, it “breathes” freely, which increases the comfort of the premises.

Curtain facades are assembled from high-quality elements that are fully prefabricated, do not require additional finishing, and there are no “wet” processes during their installation. A variety of materials can be used as cladding: a natural stone, ceramic granite, cement-fiber panels, vinyl siding, polyurethane, polyester and polypropylene panels.

Porous concrete blocks

With relatively little volumetric weight blocks made of porous concrete have sufficiently high strength, which makes it possible to make floors from conventional reinforced concrete hollow slabs.

Depending on the method of production, cellular concrete is divided into foam and aerated concrete.

Aerated concrete obtained by introducing special substances into the cement mortar that cause gas formation. Most often this is aluminum powder. Aluminum reacts with cement hydration products, hydrogen is released, which causes porosity cement mortar. When concrete hardens, its porosity is maintained.

Foam concrete obtained by mixing cement mortar with specially prepared foam. Bubbles containing air are evenly distributed throughout the entire volume of the mixture.

Cellular concrete can have different porosities. The density of concrete, that is, the weight of one cubic meter, depends on the number and size of pores: the more pores, the lighter it is, the higher its heat and sound insulating properties, but the lower its strength. As porosity decreases and density increases, strength increases, but heat and sound insulation properties deteriorate. Depending on the density of cellular concrete, its purpose also changes (for external or internal walls).

Cellular concrete do not burn and do not support combustion. They are impeccable from an environmental point of view - abroad they are often called “bioblocks”. Like wood, foam blocks can be sawed with a hacksaw, nails driven into them, and arches made from them, which allows you to give your home architectural expressiveness.

The accuracy of the dimensions allows the blocks to be placed on adhesive mixtures with a minimum joint thickness (3–5 mm), which minimizes the number of “cold bridges” and significantly reduces heat loss. In addition, the costs of subsequent wall finishing are significantly reduced.

Due to their high thermal resistance, buildings made of foam concrete are able to accumulate heat, which can reduce heating costs by 20–30%. Reducing weight also leads to savings on foundations.

It is impossible to say for sure which is better: aerated concrete or foam concrete. Foam concrete is cheaper, but it is somewhat inferior in strength. In Germany, for example, they are often used together: load-bearing walls are made of stronger aerated concrete blocks, and foam concrete blocks are used for partitions that do not bear significant loads.

Many private developers think that by using foam blocks they will immediately solve all problems - both in terms of warmth and strength. However, the construction of a box from foam blocks with a density of 800, which is sufficiently strong, although quite cheap, entails the need for insulation - blocks with a lower density will not cope with load-bearing functions.

A clear advantage of using foam blocks is that construction proceeds quickly and can be divided into two stages: first, build the box, install windows and doors, mount the roof, and, having saved up money, after a year or two, begin insulation and finishing. But in winter it is better not to live in an uninsulated house: heating can cause the walls to become damp.

Brick walls

Brick is an expensive and prestigious building material. A brick mansion is an indicator of the wealth of its owners and the seriousness of their intentions: with any architecture, this is a house for several generations.

Brick is a multifunctional material. It plays both a load-bearing role and an insulating role - and quite convincingly. However, according to today’s standards, it no longer works as insulation (unless, of course, the walls are a meter thick). Therefore, a multilayer structure is constructed, in which the brick is assigned only a load-bearing role, and other materials take on the insulation function (see “Heat Saving” above).

In terms of load-bearing capacity, almost any brick is suitable for the construction of a private house - as long as its brand matches that specified in the project, the appearance is not important. As for thermal conductivity, in this regard ordinary brick is inferior to large hollow brick blocks.

So, we offer you three design options for external walls. The first is a brick wall with insulation from the inside, the second is a wall made of foam blocks with external insulation and siding, the third is a wall made of foam blocks with external insulation using the “wet method”.

• carriers
• non-load-bearing.

• wooden from logs, beams, wooden frame
• brick made of solid and hollow clay
• ceramic and sand-lime bricks n blocks
• stone made of cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.,
• lightweight concrete made of gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, slag concrete, argolite, sawdust concrete
• soil concrete made of adobe, compacted soil.

• chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams,
• small block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg.,
• panel or panel made of ready-made elements floor-high walls,
• framed from racks and frames covered with sheet or molded materials,
• monolithic from concrete and soil,
• composite or multilayer using various materials and designs.

WHAT TO BUILD WALLS FROM?

When choosing wall material, the following considerations must be taken into account.
1."Rule of homogeneity" - all main walls (external and those internal on which the ceiling rests) must be built from the same material and rest on the same foundation. A combination of brick and lightweight concrete, as well as DSP and wood when cladding frame walls is acceptable.
2.Distances between main walls(supports for wooden floor beams) should not exceed 4 m. When reinforced concrete floor(for brick walls) this distance can be increased to 7 m.
3. Materials for the construction of walls and their design solutions are selected taking into account local climatic conditions, economics, the specified strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of the facades.

BRICK.
Advantages.
Brick walls are very durable, fire-resistant, not susceptible (unlike wooden ones) to insects - pests and rotting, and therefore durable. They allow the use of reinforced concrete floor slabs. This is necessary if you want to arrange a living space above the garage or a very large room. The small size of the bricks allows them to be used to build walls of complex configurations and lay out decorative elements of the facade. Due to the fire resistance of brick, walls made of it can be adjacent to stoves and fireplaces; smoke and ventilation ducts can be laid inside brick walls. Brick walls have a high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia - in summer they are cool in any heat, in winter they are warm for a long time even after the heating is turned off.

Flaws.
Brick walls have high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia, as well as relatively high thermal conductivity. Therefore, if in winter the house has not been heated for at least two weeks, warm it up until comfortable conditions it will take several days. Brick readily absorbs moisture. Because of this, during seasonal operation, the first weeks in brick house damp. The bricks, which have collected moisture from the atmosphere during the fall, freeze in the winter, this leads (during seasonal use) to rapid destruction - in 25 years the walls will require serious repairs. Brick walls are very heavy and do not tolerate deformation, so they require a strip foundation to the full freezing depth. To ensure proper thermal insulation, brick walls must be very thick (in the Moscow region - 52 cm). In a house with usable area 50 sq. m, they will occupy "17 sq. m - 1/3 of the area; for a house with an area of ​​200 sq. m, this ratio will be 1/6. After the completion of the laying of the walls, a year must pass before they can be finished; the walls must “settle” before finishing begins.

Conclusion.
It is advisable to use brick only in the construction of large cottages (several floors, floor area more than 200 sq. m), intended for year-round use.

SIMPLE BEAM.
Advantages.
Timber walls have low thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house is not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a few hours. For timber walls A thickness of 15 cm is sufficient. Wooden walls create healthy microclimate in the house, they remove excess moisture from the room. Timber walls are relatively light and resistant to deformation. They can be built on columnar foundation or "floating column" foundation. Wooden walls can withstand an unlimited number of freeze-thaw cycles, and therefore their service life can exceed 100 years.

Flaws.
Walls made of wood are highly flammable and susceptible to insect pests and rot, and therefore require special treatment and structural protection from moisture and fire. After finishing the felling wooden walls a year must pass before finishing begins; the walls must “settle” before finishing begins, and the settlement (up to 10%) is significantly greater than that of stone or frame walls (3 - 1%). The timber becomes deformed when drying. Caulking timber walls is a complex and expensive procedure. To minimize the consequences of these troubles (deformation and poor caulking), timber walls, outside and inside, have to be sheathed with clapboard or DSP.

Conclusion.
It is advisable to use wood in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and dachas intended for seasonal or year-round use.

PROFILED BEAM, SIMPLE AND CYLINDED LOG.
Advantages.
The same as for timber walls. Walls made of simple log more durable.

Flaws.
The same as for timber walls. In addition, walls made of these materials require careful and beautiful caulking.

Conclusion.
It is advisable to use such wood in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and dachas intended for seasonal or year-round use, when purely aesthetic considerations come first.

Flaws.
Walls made of wood are easily flammable and susceptible to insect pests and rot, and therefore require special treatment and structural protection from moisture and fire. Lining, the main material for cladding frame walls, dries out quickly (within 1-2 years), cracks appear on the wall (if the work is done correctly, not through). It is believed that the service life of frame houses does not exceed 30 years, but the use modern materials can increase it significantly. Increasing the size of the house (L walls > 9 m, height - > 2 floors) leads to a significant complication of the frame and a decrease in reliability. The use of siding for cladding is unacceptable, since it “does not breathe” - it does not allow water vapor to pass through.

Conclusion.
It is advisable to use frame walls in the construction of summer cottages intended for seasonal or year-round use.

Cutting log walls usually performed near the installation site, laying the logs “dry” without tow. After the felling is completed, the walls must “stand” in assembled form (over 6-9 months, the moisture content of the wood decreases by 3-5 times), then the logs are marked, the log house is rolled out and assembled on tow, on previously prepared foundations. During drying and operation, chopped walls shrink significantly, reaching 1:20-1:30 of the original height of the log house, so a gap (depending on the moisture content of the logs) of 6-10 cm is left above the window and door frames. The seams between the logs are caulked 2 times : the first time rough after the construction of the house, the second - after 1-1.5 years - after the final settlement of the walls.

The cutting down of the walls begins from laying the first (flat) crown of thicker logs, hewn into two edges: one on the bottom side, the second on the inside. Since the logs in the longitudinal and transverse walls are offset relative to each other by half their height, the first crown on two opposite walls is laid either on support beams or plates, or on an uneven-high plinth. For better organization drain (with a protruding base), antiseptic boards are placed under the first crown along the waterproofing layer, to which galvanized roofing steel is attached. The width of the lower edge of the frame crown is at least 15 cm. Each subsequent crown of the log house is connected to the previous one through a semicircular groove selected from the underside of each log. To give the walls stability, the crowns are connected to each other with vertical insert tenons of rectangular (6x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) cross-section 10-12 cm high, placing them in each row in checkerboard pattern every 1-1.5 m along the length of the log house; in the walls it is necessary to have at least two spikes at a distance of 15-20 cm from the edges. The height of the holes for the spikes should have a reserve for draft, i.e. be 1.5-2 cm greater than the height of the spikes. The logs in the log house are stacked alternately with butts in different sides to maintain the overall horizontality of the rows. In the corners, logs are connected in two ways: with the remainder (into the “cup”) and without the remainder (into the “paw”). The intersection of external walls with internal walls is also carried out in a “cup” or “paw”. When cutting into a “cup”, due to the corner residues, about 0.5 m is lost on each log. In addition, the protruding ends of the logs interfere with the subsequent cladding or external cladding of the walls. Paw cutting is more economical, but requires more highly skilled and careful work.

Walls made of beams are erected with less labor, and highly qualified specialists are not required. An individual developer, having ready-made beams, can do this work independently. Unlike log walls, beam walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations. If the base of the house is sinking, then the drain is not done and the first crown is laid over a waterproofing layer with an outer overhang above the base of 3-4 cm. The corners of the first crown are connected into half a tree, the rest are either on main tenons or dowels.

Gusset bars"butt-to-end" is fragile and creates vertical cracks that are blown through.
A more technologically advanced connection is made on root tenons: the wood for the tenon and socket is cut across the grain, and the cleaving is done along it. In addition, with this connection, the tenon socket is located further from the edge of the beam. To prevent horizontal shifts, the beams are connected to each other by vertical dowels (dowels) with a diameter of about 30 mm and a height of 20-25 cm. Holes for the dowels are drilled after placing the beam on the tow to a depth equal to approximately one and a half height of the beam, 2-4 cm more, than the length of the dowel.

Cobblestone walls, unlike log walls, have flat horizontal seams and therefore rain moisture penetrates into the room through them. To reduce the water permeability of the seams, each beam has a top edge remove (shave) a chamfer 20-30 mm wide, and the outer seams themselves are carefully caulked and covered with drying oil, oil paint and so on. The most effective protection of paving walls from atmospheric influences is covering them with boards or facing them with bricks. This allows you not only to protect the walls from exposure to external moisture and reduce airflow, but also to make them “warmer”, and with brick cladding, more fire-resistant.

To prevent biological destruction of wood, a ventilation gap 4-6 cm wide is created between the plank sheathing and the wall. If additional insulation of the walls of the house is necessary, this gap is widened and filled with mineral wool. In this case, the insulation should be left open at the top and bottom. It is better to make plank cladding horizontal - this makes it easier to install insulation and creates more favorable conditions for vertical ventilation of the interior space. The brick cladding is also installed with a gap of 5-7 cm from the wall. To ventilate the internal space (including those filled with insulation), vents are left at the top and bottom of the brick cladding. The brick cladding is laid out either in half a brick or with modular bricks having a thickness of 88 mm, “on edge” and secured to beams or logs with metal clamps placed every 30-40 cm in height and every 1-1.5 m along the front checkerboard walls.

Clamps are a double-bent strip of galvanized roofing steel, 3-5 cm wide and 15-20 cm long. One side of it is attached with a bent end to a beam or log (preferably with a screw), the other is embedded in the brickwork with the end bent 900 along the cladding. Sheathing and cladding of cobblestone and log walls is carried out after they have completely settled, i.e. no earlier than 1-1.5 years after construction.

WOODEN FRAME WALLS
Frame walls are considered the most easy option for construction country house, since at a relatively low cost of wood they can be no less warm and low-acoustic than felled ones log walls.

The frame usually consists of a lower and top harness walls, stiffening struts, as well as such auxiliary elements as intermediate posts and crossbars, between which door and window frames.

After assembling the frame, it is sheathed on the outside with boards about 20 mm thick. Instead, you can use other durable and weather-resistant materials, for example asbestos cement slabs.

The following method is used to insulate walls. The boards are laid in two layers, leaving space between them, which must be filled either with rolled materials (roofing felt, roofing felt), or with slab or bulk materials. Slab and roll materials are attached to the wall with nails. The resulting seams are covered with gypsum solution or caulked with tow. When laying slabs in two layers, the seams between the slabs of the first layer must be overlapped by the slabs of the second layer.

To prevent moist air from penetrating between the layers of boards, an insulating layer of roofing felt is placed on the inside of the wall under the sheathing, which is mixed with lime before use. It will reliably protect your house from rodents.

In addition to lime, slag, pumice, sawdust, moss, peat, sunflower husks, and straw can be used as backfill. The lighter the material, the lower its thermal conductivity. Before use, it must be thoroughly dried and antiseptic. And only after this treatment, mix, lay in layers and compact.

But despite the fact that dry backfills have a number of advantages (relative cheapness, accessibility, protection from rodents), they are characterized by one drawback, namely, they cause settlement of the house with the subsequent formation of unwanted voids, which cannot be attributed to the advantages. To prevent this, it is necessary to raise the walls 300 mm above the ceiling beams and fill them with backfill; Gradually settling, it will fill the voids. It is better to use slab materials under the windows, and if this is not possible, then we recommend that you install retractable window sills and add backfill through them.

Due to the fact that the backfill for the most part is considered light and bulk material and, as we have already noted, it gives a sediment; materials are added to it, turning it into a solid aggregate. Perhaps one of the most commonly used materials is considered to be lime and gypsum (80% sawdust contains 5% gypsum).

Some builders resort to moistened backfills. When preparing them, you must strictly observe a certain ratio of materials, which are best taken by weight. So, for example, for 1 part of organic filler take 0.5 parts of gypsum and 2 parts of water. It is prepared as follows: layers of organic fillers and a binder are poured onto the striker, mixed thoroughly and moistened with water. All this dries out in 2-3 weeks. Many builders make the mistake of using thermal insulation materials (roof felt, roofing felt) when making moistened backfill. Under no circumstances should this be done, as such materials can subsequently cause fungus that is dangerous to the wood.

The most effective heat-insulating material is slabs made of organic materials, 50x50 in size, 5 to 15 cm thick. To make them, take 4 parts clay dough, 0.3 parts quicklime, 2 parts water. In the absence of lime, you can use cement (0.3 parts to 2 parts water). All components are mixed; If they are dry, they must be moistened with water. Everything is thoroughly mixed again until homogeneous, placed in molds, compacted and dried under a canopy or indoors. Drying time depends on the binder. If you used gypsum or lime, then the drying time will be limited to two to three weeks, and if you used clay, you will have to wait three to four weeks.

BRICK WALLS.
Various types of bricks are used for laying the walls of residential buildings. In order to save materials, it is not recommended to use conventional solid brick. It is better to lay out solid walls from lightweight and hollow brick, using double-row and multi-row dressing systems. When tying the masonry in two rows, the front rows of dowels alternate with rows of spoons, and tying requires a significant number of halves and three-quarters of brick. The masonry in a multi-row dressing consists of spoon rows, overlapped every fifth row (in height) by a bonded row. The thickness of horizontal and vertical mortar joints should be no more than 10-12 mm. Examples of masonry walls and their details (corners, pillars, partitions, as well as wall junctions) are shown in the figure.

When laying, the mortar is applied to the wall from a box (with low sides) with a shovel and spread in the form of a convex bed. The brick must first be laid out on the wall for spoon rows in stacks of 2 bricks flat, with the long side along the wall, and for bonded rows with the long side across the wall. The masonry is carried out, observing strict horizontal and vertical rows, ensuring the correctness of the front surfaces of the walls. For better adhesion of the mortar to the brick, especially when laying in hot weather, it is recommended to moisten the brick with water before laying. This recommendation applies to all types brickwork. If the walls will be plastered in the future, then the masonry should be hollowed out, that is, without filling the seams at the surface of the wall to be plastered with mortar. With this method, the plaster adheres more firmly to the wall surface. For masonry massive stone walls cold solutions are used, and for thin walls, requiring increased thermal qualities - warm plastic solutions. IN warm solutions sand is replaced with ground fuel or blast furnace slag, ash, ground tuff, pumice, etc. If the substitute is well ground, then sand is not added, but if the substitute contains some large impurities, then sand is added in small quantities. When plastered externally, a wall using such solutions acquires better heat-insulating qualities.

To install door and window frames, openings with cut quarters are left in the masonry. The openings are covered with prefabricated reinforced concrete, ordinary brick or wedge lintels. When installing ordinary lintels at the level of the top of the opening, formwork is installed from boards 40-50 mm thick, on which the mortar is spread in a layer of up to 2 cm and reinforcement is laid (stack steel, round 4-6 mm steel) at the rate of 1 rod per 1/2 brick wall thickness. The ends of the reinforcement should extend 25 cm into the walls. Wedge lintels are also installed on pre-laid formwork, laying bricks on edge from the edges to the middle of the lintel and sloping at the edges to form a spacer (wedge). It is allowed to install lintels made of tarred boards 5-6 cm thick, the ends of which should be buried 15-25 cm into the walls.

PARTITIONS.
Partitions must be soundproof, nailable, durable, and stable. Partitions are installed on the floor structure before flooring is laid. In places where partitions made of combustible materials adjoin furnaces and chimneys, brick cuts should be made along the entire height so that the distance from the partition to inner surface the stove or chimney was at least 40 cm.

FRAME.
The frame of the partitions consists of posts 5-6 cm thick and 9-10 cm wide with spikes at the ends, top and lower harness of the same cross-section with sockets for the tenons of the racks. The racks are placed at a distance of 0.75-1.2 m from one another, with a spike in the socket of the straps, and fastened with nails. To form a doorway, frame posts are installed with a crossbar (lintel) embedded on top. The door frame is nailed to the framing posts. The frame is sheathed horizontally on both sides with boards 1.9-2.5 cm thick. Boards more than 12 cm wide are split with an ax so that they do not warp when plastered. The voids between the two skins are filled with fine sifted dry slag to increase soundproofing and reduce fire hazard. In some cases, the frame of the interior partition can be covered with fiberboards and plywood sheets without any filling. However, such partitions, being very light and simple in design, have high sound conductivity.

GYPSUM PARTITIONS.
Partitions made of gypsum slabs are laid before the finished floor is installed on boards with blocks nailed along the edges to form a gutter that prevents the slabs from moving to the sides. The laying of the slabs begins with filling the trench in the tray with gypsum mortar. The first row of slabs is immersed in the solution with the groove facing up. The vertical seams between the slabs are filled with mortar. Before installing the next row of slabs, fill the groove of the first row with mortar, etc. The partition is not brought up to the ceiling by 1-2 cm in order to be able to thoroughly caulk and seal the gap with mortar. High doorways are protected by posts that rest against the ceilings. For low openings door frames installed before the partition is installed. The lintel is carried out by simply overlapping the slabs (with an opening width of less than 1 m) or laying two reinforcement bars filled with gypsum mortar. To protect gypsum boards from moisture, if the partition is supported on concrete base floor of the first floor, 2 rows of brickwork are laid under the partition over a layer of roofing felt or roofing felt. After laying, the gypsum partition is plastered or rubbed.

BRICK PARTITIONS.
Brick partitions are laid with a thickness of 1/2 brick (12 cm). The basis for the partitions can be concrete preparation for the floors of the first floor or reinforced concrete floors. By wooden floors Brick partitions should not be made due to their significant weight. The masonry is carried out by tying vertical seams. The surfaces are plastered on both sides. The connection of brick partitions to walls and ceilings is carried out in the same way as with plaster partitions. Jumpers are placed over the doorways, supporting them on 2 reinforcement bars in cement mortar.

Walls

By location - external and internal.

Exterior walls - the most complex building structure. They are exposed to numerous and varied force and non-force influences. Internal walls are divided into:

Inter-apartment;

26. General requirements and classification of walls.

Walls called vertical structural elements buildings separating premises from external environment and dividing the building into separate rooms. They perform enclosing and load-bearing (or only the first) functions. They are classified according to various criteria.

By location - external and internal.

Exterior walls - the most complex building structure. They are exposed to numerous and varied force and non-force influences. The walls bear their own weight, permanent and temporary loads from floors and roofs, the effects of wind, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc.

From the outside, external walls are exposed to solar radiation, precipitation, variable temperatures and humidity of the outside air, external noise, and from the inside - to heat flow, water vapor flow, and noise. Performing the functions of an external enclosing structure and a composite element of facades, and often a load-bearing structure, the external wall must meet the requirements of strength, durability and fire resistance corresponding to the capital class of the building, protect the premises from adverse external influences, provide the necessary temperature and humidity conditions for the enclosed premises, and have decorative qualities.

The design of the external wall must meet the economic requirements of minimum material consumption and cost, since external walls are the most expensive structure (20-25% of the cost of building structures).

In the external walls there are usually window openings for lighting the premises and doorways for entrance and exit to balconies and loggias. Expansion joints arranged to avoid the formation of cracks and distortions in the walls caused by the concentration of forces from the effects of variable temperatures and shrinkage of the material (masonry, monolithic or prefabricated concrete structures, etc.). They are often called temperature-shrinkable. Temperature-shrinkage joints cut through the structures of only the ground part of the building. The distances between temperature-shrinkable seams are determined in accordance with climatic conditions and physical and mechanical properties wall materials.Sedimentary seams should be provided in places where there are sharp changes in the number of storeys of the building (sedimentary joints of the first type), as well as in case of significant uneven deformations of the base along the length of the building, caused by the specific geological structure of the base (sedimentary joints of the second type). Settlement seams of the first type are prescribed to compensate for differences in vertical deformations of ground structures of the high and low parts of the building, and therefore they are arranged similarly to temperature-shrinkable ones only in ground structures. Sedimentary joints of the second type cut the building to its entire height - from the ridge to the base of the foundation. Anti-seismic seams should be provided in buildings erected in areas with seismicity of 7 points or more. The distance between anti-seismic joints should not exceed 60 m. Anti-seismic joints should also be installed in places where the number of storeys changes and in buildings with complex plan shapes to be divided into independent symmetrical compartments.

The design of the anti-seismic joint should ensure the independence of the compartments.

Expansion joints in frame-panel buildings are separated by paired columns.

Minimum length (width) of the temperature compartment frame-panel the building should be 60 m.

Internal walls are divided into:

Inter-apartment;

Indoor (walls and partitions);

Walls with ventilation ducts(near the kitchen, bathrooms, etc.).

Depending on the adopted structural system and building layout, the external and internal walls of the building are divided into load-bearing, self-supporting and non-load-bearing. Partitions

Bearers

Self-supporting

Non-load bearing

Partitions- These are vertical, usually non-load-bearing fences that divide the internal volume of a building into adjacent rooms.

They are classified according to the following signs:

By location - interior, inter-apartment, for kitchens and plumbing units;

By function - blind, with openings, incomplete, that is, not reaching

By design - solid, frame, sheathed on the outside with sheet material;

According to the installation method - stationary and transformable.

Partitions must meet the requirements of strength, stability, fire resistance, sound insulation, etc.

Bearers walls, in addition to the vertical load from their own mass, perceive and transmit to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: floors, partitions, roofs, etc. (Table 5.1).

Self-supporting walls take vertical load only from their own mass (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, rand beams, grillage or other structures.

Non-load bearing the walls, floor by floor (or across several floors), are supported on adjacent internal structures of the building (floors, walls, frame).

27. Architectural and structural details of walls.

On outer surface walls are distinguished horizontal and vertical divisions architectural and structural details and elements.

Horizontal divisions form a base, cornices, belts, and vertical - braces, risalits, pilasters, niches, columns and half-columns and other elements.

Base called the lower part of the building, located directly above the foundation (Fig. 5.4,a...n).

Structural elements that protect the walls of buildings from rain and melt water are cornices (Fig. 5.4, d, e ).

Cornices there are crowning and intermediate . The cornice as an architectural element of a building can influence the expressiveness of the facade.

Protrusions are installed above window and door openings - sandriki (Fig.5.5, 6). which are also architectural decorations. Around window and doorways sometimes they get a job platband and (Fig. 5.5, d). They are often made from special shaped elements. In some cases, the outer wall of the building is raised slightly higher than the covering; this part of the wall is called parapet.

Large elements that have both functional and architectural purposes are balconies, loggias, bay windows .

Balconies are a platform consisting of balcony slab and fences (Fig. 5.6, a ).

Bay window called the enclosed part of the room, protruding beyond the outer plane of the facade wall and usually illuminated by several windows (Fig. 5.6b ). Bay windows enrich not only the overall design of facades, but also their volumetric-spatial structure.

Niche called a local recess in the wall, pilaster – local thickening of the wall, elongated vertically and insignificant in width.

Column – this is a separate support in the form of a pillar, semi-column - a pilaster protruding from the plane of the wall by half its width. Columns and semi-columns, as a rule, perform load-bearing functions

Loggia It is an open room built into the dimensions of the building, protruding (partially or completely) from the plane of the external walls (Fig. 5.6c). Based on their design, there are three types of loggias: recessed, completely placed within the dimensions of the building, partially recessed and external.

External walls are not only structural elements, they outer side is an element of the building facade. Therefore, the walls (their configuration, vertical and horizontal divisions, proportions of individual elements, plinths, cornices, decoration, etc.) determine the nature of the architecture and tectonics of the building. At the same time, the facade does not exist independently of the purpose of the building, its planning structure, materials and structures of external walls, but is a reflection of them.

Impacts on walls. Both external and internal walls of buildings are exposed to a number of factors that are closely related to processes occurring inside and outside the building.

Force influences include:

Load from floors and coverings (roofs);

Load from uneven soil deformation (precipitation, heaving);

Seismic impacts.

Non-force influences are:

Precipitation;

Water vapor contained in indoor air;

Soil moisture;

Solar radiation;

Outside air temperature, its changes;

Aggressive substances contained in the air;

Airborne noise from outside and inside the building.

Walls must satisfy the following requirements:

Be strong and stable;

Have durability corresponding to the class of the building;

Comply with the fire resistance level of the building;

Be an energy-saving element of the building;

Meet air and sound insulation requirements;

To be industrialized in order to increase labor productivity;

Possess, if possible, minimal weight and material consumption;

Meet modern architectural and artistic quality;

Be economical during construction and operation.

Accounting for all modern requirements necessitated dividing the outer walls into layers separate for their purpose. The walls have become multi-layered, consisting of functionally separated elements: the load-bearing capacity is provided by a more durable structural layer, protection from cooling or overheating is provided by a fragile but highly effective thermal insulation layer, and, finally, giving a good appearance is by finishing layers.

Internal walls are designed based on strength and sound insulation. These two requirements in their own way physical properties coincide, the denser the material of the inner wall, the more durable and less sound conductive it is.

However, here too, layered structures with alternating dense and loose layers are more effective in sound insulation, which in each individual case must be determined by calculation.

The architect’s task is to develop a solution in which the materials of the walls and their design would satisfy, if possible, all the requirements for them and contribute to obtaining the most optimal solution. In the design process, it is necessary to take into account the following basic principles as initial ones: preconditions:

Climatic factors of the construction area (outside air temperature in winter and summer, precipitation, wind speed, insolation);

The range of available building materials;

Technical capabilities of construction and installation enterprises;

Special construction conditions (seismic, soil, etc.);

Classification of walls. Depending on the load perception, the walls of buildings can be load-bearing, self-supporting or non-load-bearing.

By position in the building walls are divided into internal And external(along the perimeter of the building).

By type of base material load-bearing and self-supporting walls can be wooden, stone, concrete, combined. The following basic materials and products are used for walls:

Wood (logs, beams, boards, panels);

Burnt clay (brick, stones);

Silicate mass (brick);

Natural stone;

Stabilized soil (blocks);

Lightweight concrete (stones, blocks, panels, monolith);

Cellular concrete (stones, blocks, monolith);

Heavy concrete (panels, monolith).

Depending on the type and size wall products used are:

- from small-sized wall products– bricks, stones, small blocks;

- large-element– from wall elements with a height of 1/4 to full height floors or more; Large-element walls are divided into large-block and large-panel.

By construction method differentiate masonry walls(assemblies) of small-piece products, prefabricated, monolithic, prefabricated-monolithic.

By design features there are walls single-layer(usually internal) and layered, continuous And hollow.

By the presence and location of thermal insulation external walls are divided into:

- walls without special device thermal insulation– from structural and thermal insulation materials (wood, wood concrete, cellular concrete, polystyrene concrete);

- walls with thermal insulation layers, located inside the wall, on the outside of the structural layer of the wall, on the outside and inside together.

By the presence of a special air gap(layers) walls are divided into:

- ventilated- With air gaps, located either inside the structural layer (between the structural layers), or between the insulation and the protective cladding;

- unventilated– without an air gap.

Wall structural system buildings can be designed in a wide variety of options (schemes) for the location of load-bearing walls - transverse and longitudinal, internal and external, rectilinear and curvilinear, parallel, radial, concentric, etc. The determination (purpose) of the location of load-bearing walls is in direct dependence on the solution of the floors (coverings, roofs) of the building - the support or abutment of their elements on the walls.

During the design process, the quality should be taken into account original the following main preconditions:

Climatic factors of the construction area (summer and winter temperature outside air, precipitation, wind speed, insolation);

Special construction conditions (part-time work, seismic, soil, etc.);

Characteristics of the building (purpose, number of storeys, degree of fire resistance, temperature and humidity conditions, etc.);

Technical capabilities of construction organizations;

Financial capabilities of the customer.