What resources are there in Syria? Syria. Economic and geographical location. Natural conditions and resources. Civil war in Syria

Economic and geographical position of Syria

Note 1

The Syrian Arab Republic is located in the Middle East, South-West Asia.

Syria's neighbors are 5 states - the border with Turkey is in the north, then the eastern border is with Iraq, in the south it borders with Jordan, the western border is with Israel and Lebanon.

The longest length of the state border of Syria is between Turkey (899 km) and Iraq (596 km).

The western shores of Syria are washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea.

Syria and Turkey are connected by historical and geographical factors, but despite this, there are no bilateral relations at the official level.

There are also tense relations with Israel, whose existence Syria has never recognized. There are no economic or cultural ties between the countries.

Among all the countries of the Middle East, Lebanon is a strategic partner of Syria; relations between these countries are formed on the basis of the ethnic, cultural and economic unity of their peoples.

Relations with Jordan were also not always smooth.

In the 70s, relations between Syria and Iraq worsened. The reason was that Syria filled Lake Assad with water, which led to a reduction in water flow in Iraq, but with the help of Saudi Arabia, this problem was resolved.

Transport and its level of development play an important role in the development of the economy.

Transport in the country was poorly developed, and today, in wartime conditions, there is no need to talk about the development of transport infrastructure.

Before the war, the main role in cargo and passenger transportation was played by road transport. The country had a single network of roads, concentrated in the west of the country, along the Mediterranean coast.

The main transport routes stretched from Turkey to Jordan and Lebanon. Before the war, the length of asphalt roads reached 40 thousand km.

Despite the fact that railway transport appeared earlier than road transport, it was in second place in the national transport system.

Air transport began to develop in the 60s of the last century. Provincial settlements were not connected by air. There was an international airport in Damascus that received modern airliners.

In the presence of rivers, river transport has not received much development, and sea transport is in its infancy.

Pipeline transport was used for transit pumping of oil to the Mediterranean Sea. Oil was transported from Iraq and Saudi Arabia.

The country was very dependent on the import of industrial goods, especially it needs machinery and equipment, vehicles, and ferrous metals.

Beautiful Syrian cities received numerous foreign tourists.

Weapons are of particular importance for today's Syria. Liberated from ISIS (a terrorist organization banned in Russia), Syrian cities are beginning to live peacefully - they are restoring roads and rebuilding residential areas.

Note 2

For peacetime, the economic and geographical position of Syria is favorable, because the country has open access to the Mediterranean Sea, and from it to the Atlantic Ocean, and is located at the crossroads of international land and air routes. Circumstances today have developed in such a way that its political and geographical position is very complex, the country itself is a hot spot on the political map of the world and is located close to other hot spots in the Middle East region.

Natural conditions of Syria

There are five natural regions within Syria:

1. Primorskaya lowland;
2. Western Mountain Range;
3. Rift zone;
4. Eastern Mountain Range;
5. Plateau of Eastern Syria.

The Primorskaya Lowland stretches along the coast in a narrow strip. In some places it is interrupted by rocky headlands approaching the shore.

Between the lowland and the rift zone is the Ansaria mountain range, running from the coast of Turkey to the borders with Lebanon. Its average height reaches 1200 m, and the highest point is Nebi Younes (1561 m). Dropping sharply in the east, the mountains form a ledge 900 m high. In the southern part of the Ansaria ridge there is an intermountain passage where a road runs connecting the city of Homs with the Lebanese port of Tripoli.

To the north of the passage and east of the ridge, a rift zone stretches for 64 km. It is a continuation of the East African Rift System.

The eastern mountain range is a hilly surface with a height of 460-600 m with a maximum elevation of 900 m. To the south of the Ansaria ridge stretch the Anti-Lebanon and Hermon (Esh-Sheikh) ridges. The highest point in Syria (2814 m) is located in the Esh-Sheikh ridge - the mountain has the same name. These ridges are the natural border between Syria and Lebanon.

The eastern part of Syria is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau, the northern part of which is 300 m lower than the southern part. To the east, the height of the plateau becomes lower from 750 m to 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. Most of the plateau is covered with lava coarse material.

The western part of Syria is characterized by a subtropical Mediterranean climate, and the interior regions are characterized by a dry continental climate.

In the west, an average of 750 mm of precipitation falls annually, in the mountains from 1000 to 1300 mm. The rains begin in October and continue until March.

Air temperature +30… +35 degrees with high humidity. Higher in the mountains the temperature becomes lower - by 5 degrees during the day and by 11 degrees at night. Winter average temperatures are +13…+15 degrees. Precipitation in the form of snow is possible, but only for the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria Range.

Although this time is the rainy season, there is very little rainfall. In eastern Syria, precipitation decreases to 500 mm per year. This is an area of ​​steppes and semi-deserts.

The average July temperature in the Damascus area is +28 degrees. The average daily air temperature in July and August exceeds +38 degrees.

Humidity and temperature drop sharply after sunset. In winter, night temperatures drop below zero and frosts and precipitation in the form of snow are frequent in the northern part of the steppe zone.

Natural resources of Syria

The depths of Syria are not rich in mineral resources. Before today's events, the country was mainly engaged in oil production, large deposits of which are located in the far northeast.

Gas production activities have been intensified. Recoverable reserves of this fuel are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m.

The extraction of phosphates played an important role in the country's economy, the proven reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons - these are the Khneifns and Sharkiyya deposits.

Iron ore reserves are estimated at 400-500 million tons, and its main areas are Zabadani, Bludan, Raju.

The country also mined rock salt, building stone, gypsum, marble, asphalt, and gravel.

Water resources are represented by rivers flowing through the territory of Syria in transit - in the east the deep Euphrates with tributaries originating in the mountains of Turkey.

In the west of Syria flows the El Asi River, the beginning of which is in the mountains of Lebanon.

The Tigris flows along the border with Iraq in the northeast. There are large lakes in the west.

The main soils are sierozems; they occupy most of the country. Chestnut soils occur in the north and west. The most fertile are the brown soils found on the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge and the coastal lowland. There are saline and gypsum soils.

The anthropogenic impact on vegetation is great, especially now. The primary forests that covered the mountain slopes were replaced by secondary forests, represented by low-growing coniferous and deciduous species.

In the western part of the country, evergreen oaks, laurels, magnolias, and ficus grow on the mountain slopes. You can find cypress groves, groves of Lebanese cedar, Aleppo pine. On the coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane.

In 1955-1956, agreements were concluded with the British "Iraq Petroleum Company" and the American "Transara-Bien Pipeline Company" on the transfer to Syria of 50% of the profits received by the companies for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of Syria
http://bse.sci-lib.com/article102589.html

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulfur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Syria

http://www.atenergy.com/me/SyriaAP.htm

At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies was prohibited.
Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production.
By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria.
By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.
http://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-10876.html

Syrian Petroleum Company
In the period of 1923 – 1950: Iraq petroleum company and then Syria oil company have been acquired a Concession for oil exploration, where /11/ wells were drilled with out petroleum discoveries.

In the period of 1951 – 1956: /6/ wells were drilled and petroleum was discovered in Karachouk field for the first time.
In 1956 Concordia Company had signed an exploration contract and drilled /12/ wells where oil accumulations were discovered in Souedieh field.

In 1957 the Syrian Government had concluded a technical and economic cooperation contract with the soviet union
In 1958 General Corporate For Oil Affairs was established and entrusted to supervise the oil industry in Cooperation with the Soviet side, where during this period a geological map for Syria was made.
The SPC was established in 1974 and was entrusted to execute oil and gas exploration and production operations in all parts of Syria.

In the period of 1961 – 1975: the SPC had executed drilling of / 485 / wild cat and exploratory wells and put a number of structures into Production.
A contract had signed with Rom petroleum company to explore oil. This company had withdrawn after drilling 7 wells.

In the period of 1975 – 1985: a group of Contracting companies for oil exploration were entered and executed geological and geophysical works over almost the whole acreage of Syria. During this period 270 exploration wells were drilled.
The SPC had recorded several discoveries, while the contracting companies didn’t achieve any discoveries.

In the period of 1986 – 1995: this period had been characterized by increasing the exploratory activity whether by the SPC or by the contracting companies where exploration contracts had signed with /12/ foreign companies (shell, Elf – Total, Marathon and Tulo Companies) were achieved significant discoveries of oil and gas in different parts of Syria. The SPChad discovered /15/ oil and gas fields

In the period of 1995 – 2006: A new group of Contracting companies for oil exploration had entered and signed 13 contracts with the Syrian Petroleum Company which they are 11 companies.
http://www.spc-sy.com/en/main/index.php

Syria (1980-2009)
(peak production year 1996)

http://www.crudeoilpeak.com/?page_id=1571

The main minerals are oil, produced mainly in Kara Shuk (Karashuk) in the far northeast of the country; natural gas mainly from the Al Jazeera area; phosphates, limestone and salt. Oil pipelines from Iraq and Jordan pass through Syria; there is a pipeline stretching from Kara Shuk to the Mediterranean coast.

Since 1974, oil has remained Syria's dominant source of income, accounting for approximately 65% ​​of its total exports at the end of the 20th century. Oil production in 2001 was 522,700 barrels per day, with proven oil reserves of 2.4 billion barrels as of January 2002 and proven natural gas reserves of 240.7 billion cubic meters.
http://www.rusarabbc.org/rusarab/detail.php?ID=1350

In the mid-1990s, the country produced approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east in the Euphrates Valley, the exploitation of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where particularly high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s–1990s. Natural gas is also being extracted, including that associated with oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.
http://www.easttime.ru/countries/topics/2/7/49.html

4/5/2010
Syria's Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources today invited international oil companies to bid for exploration and production rights to eight blocks.
The Ministry said that it is offering production sharing contracts for Blocks III, IV, V, VII, XII, XIV, XVI, and XVIII, in the eastern and northern parts of the country. It said that qualifying documents should be submitted by 1 June and bids no later than 15 September.

In addition to the eight blocks on offer, the Ministry has extended its earlier deadline for bids to develop seven separate oil areas believed to be heavy oil fields to June 20. These are also to be under production sharing agreements and are divided into two groups, both in Raqqa Province: Group 1 includes West Tureb, Halima, and Dohal, while Group 2 consists of Jaadeen, Tal Asfar, Zenati, and al-Haloul.
Syria is in an all-out effort to drive up its oil production, which has decreased from 590,000 b/d four years ago to about 380,000 b/d today. Its natural gas production is approximately 882.9 million cf/d.
http://www.oilandgasinternational.com/departments/licensing_concessions/apr10_syria.aspx

Oil and capital, 2007, No. 4
Syria's oil reserves, according to various estimates, range from 315 million to 342 million tons. At the same time, according to experts, major discoveries have already been made in the country. In the east and northeast there are heavy (24°API) oil fields explored in the 60-70s of the 20th century (the largest of them are Karachuk and Suwaydiyah), on which the state-owned Syrian Petroleum Company (SPC) operates after nationalization in 1968. In addition, SPC is developing a number of fields it has already discovered here. Raw materials from the northeast are supplied via an oil pipeline with a capacity of about 15 million tvg to the refinery in the city of Homs and the Tartus export terminal.

The second center of Syrian oil production is located in the province of Deir ez-Zour (central and southeastern part of the country). Here, in the 80s of the last century, a consortium of foreign companies, led by Shell’s subsidiary Pecten, discovered the al-Thayyem field containing light (36°API) oil. To jointly manage the al-Thayyem concession, SPC and consortium members created the al-Furat Petroleum Company (AFPC) JV in 1985. Today, after repeated changes in the composition of shareholders, AFPC participants are SPC (50%), Shell (31.25%) and a consortium of Chinese CNPC and Indian ONGC (18.75%). In addition to al-Thayyem, AFPC is developing 36 more fields in this province. All AFPC fields are combined into three projects - Appendix IV, Al Sham, Deir ez-Zour: for each, SPC signed a production sharing contract with foreign partners. Shell is the leader in each project, with a share of more than 60%.

AFPC's fields are connected to the Kirkuk-Baniyas transit oil pipeline from Iraq, through which oil is supplied to the ports of Tartus and Latakia and to the Baniyas refinery.

According to Syrian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Sufian Allaw, the country produced about 20 million tons of oil in 2006: 3 million tons less than a year earlier (see chart). Moreover, according to various (often conflicting) sources, AFPC accounts for from 1/2 to 2/3 of total production. Over the past 10 years, the level of oil production in Syria has decreased by a third from its peak of 30 million tge in 1996. The reason for this was the depletion of the vast majority of fields, the reduction in production at which began back in the 90s.

At this stage, Syria is a net exporter of oil, but at the same time the country imports oil. Mostly light oil is imported into Syria; it is mixed with local heavy grades, and only this mixture is processed at refineries that were initially focused on Iraqi raw materials. Currently, the Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline does not operate as a transit pipeline: the Americans blocked it in 2003.

According to IMF forecasts, if the decline in oil production in Syria is not stopped, and the volume of consumption of petroleum products continues to grow, then by 2010 the country will become a net importer of “black gold” from a net exporter. In order to avoid this, the country's leadership, on the one hand, is intensifying efforts to attract investors to explore new reserves, and on the other hand, it has begun to pay more attention to intensifying production and expanding the use of natural gas. Let us note that the influx of investment into the country is limited by US sanctions, which believe that Syria supports international terrorism. This, in particular, explains the absence of major American companies in the country, which at the dawn of the development of Syrian oil production showed significant interest in it.

In 2001, a series of international tender rounds opened in Syria for the right to conduct oil and gas exploration work under a PSA. Over the past time, at least 5 (according to other sources - 6) rounds have taken place in the country, during which more than 20 licensed areas have found owners.

In mid-March, Syria put up new areas for the next round, which, if all of them are distributed, will most likely be the last of the “land” ones. Damascus offers 7 lots, and all of them are located in border areas: 3 with Jordan, 2 with Iraq, and 2 with Turkey. Also this year it is planned to offer investors offshore blocks of the Syrian shelf of the Mediterranean Sea.

During previous rounds, companies from all over the world received licenses in Syria: currently, according to Sufian Allawa, 13 foreign entities are conducting oil exploration and production here. Two Russian companies - Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz - also received the opportunity to develop production projects in Syria: each of them won one license.
Russian companies signed a PSA for the licenses they won in 2005, just after Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited Moscow and Russia agreed to write off a significant part of the Syrian debt.

Tatneft “took” its block (No. 27) in the 2003 round. Its area is 1900 km2, it is divided into two sections, which are directly adjacent to the border with Iraq. The Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline runs along the edge of the southern section of the block. According to the terms of the contract, Tatneft will allocate more than $26 million for geological exploration over 7 years. The main exploration period for the block is 3 years; at Tatneft’s request, it can be extended twice by two years. The minimum exploration program involves conducting 2D and 3D seismic surveys and drilling three exploration wells, and in case of contract extension, three more. The period of field development and oil production under the contract is 25 years. During this period, Tatneft will also spend $1 million to finance social and educational programs.

At the moment, there is no data on possible reserves of the block. According to experts, despite the complex geological structure, the block is promising, given that oil production is actively underway in neighboring areas. According to information from Tatneft, by the end of 2006 the company had completed work on interpreting seismic data from previous years, and in early March it began seismic exploration work, including 3D, over an area of ​​130 km2 and geochemical surveying over an area of ​​170 km2.

SoyuzNefteGaz won in 2004: the company won licenses for two blocks - No. 12 and No. 14, but subsequently abandoned the second. SoyuzNefteGaz will operate in the block bordering Iraq, which is adjacent to the holdings of Tatneft. According to the company, the block most likely contains gas resources rather than oil, which at this stage are estimated at 70-80 billion m3. As NIK reported, over 8 years, according to the terms of the contract, SoyuzNefteGaz must invest at least $50 million in geological exploration. It will have to conduct 2D seismic over an area of ​​1000 linear meters. km and 3D - for 500 km2, and also to drill 10 exploration wells.

Let us note that both Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz have interests in Iraq. In particular, the largest project of SoyuzNefteGaz is the development of the Al-Rafidayan field, located in the south of the country. According to information from both companies, they view Syrian assets as a springboard for strengthening their positions in Iraq. But if Tatneft does not intend to expand the geography of its activities in Syria, then SoyuzNefteGaz is considering the possibility of participating in the upcoming “land” round, which will include areas on the border with Iraq. By the way, Yuri Shafranik’s company has previously made attempts to enter into existing projects for the development of border blocks (see “Block No. 26”).

In 2005, the Russian Stroytransgaz began implementing two large-scale projects in Syria. Firstly, the company, having won the tender and signed a contract for $210 million with the Syrian Gas Company (SGC), began developing three fields in the new Palmyra gas production area. As part of it, Stroytransgaz is building a gas processing plant with a capacity of 2.2 billion m3/year of purified gas, 23 thousand tg of propane-butane and 180 thousand tg of condensate, as well as gas pipelines and related infrastructure. Construction is scheduled to be completed in February 2008. At the same time, the company is negotiating the construction of a second gas processing plant in Palmyra with a capacity of 1.1 billion m3.

Secondly, Stroytransgaz began construction of a section of the Arab gas pipeline, through which Egyptian gas should be supplied to Turkey, and then, after joining the Nabucco project, to Europe. The implementation of the project is divided into two stages: the first involves the construction of a 96 km section from the border with Jordan to the Deir Ali thermal power plant and a branch (5 km) to the Tishrin thermal power plant, the second involves the construction of the Deir Ali - Homs section and a gas collection point in Homs, as well as a connection GPP in Palmyra with Homs. The construction of a branch to the Tishrine thermal power plant is the result of an expansion of the contract in 2005, the cost of which, according to the company, increased to $160 million. At this stage, more than 150 km of gas pipeline have already been laid in the ground; Construction is scheduled to be completed in December of this year.

In addition to the ongoing construction projects, Stroytransgaz’s “waiting list” includes projects whose implementation is related to Iraq, and which have been postponed until the situation in this country stabilizes. Thus, in 2001, Stroytransgaz reached an agreement with the Syrian government on the construction, together with the French Total, of a new transit branch of the Kirkuk-Homs-Baniyas-Beirut oil pipeline with a throughput capacity of 70 million tvg. In 2002, the company handed over a feasibility study for the oil pipeline to the Syrian side. As Stroytransgaz told NIK, Syria has not yet made a decision to revive the oil pipeline, but the company believes that this is only a matter of time. Once this pipe is in demand again, Stroytransgaz will become the number one contender for its construction.

In addition, the Western Gas project, within the framework of which a gas pipeline with a length of 300 km and a cost of €180 million was to be built to Syria from Iraq, was frozen. At the initiative of the Iraqi side, Stroytransgaz prepared a corresponding proposal in 2002; Before the outbreak of hostilities, the parties managed to agree on the technical and commercial aspects of the project, but negotiations were suspended at this point. At the end of 2005, Iraq and Syria signed an agreement to revive the project.

Today, there are two fuel oil refineries operating in Syria - in Homs and Baniyas, built in 1959 and 1979, respectively. The total capacity of the plants is about 11.5 million tvg. They do not have catalytic cracking units, and the reforming unit at the Baniyas refinery has a capacity (about 1.5 million tow) that is insufficient to meet the country’s needs for motor fuel. Syria annually exports straight-run gasoline and is forced to import kerosene and diesel fuel.

At the same time, domestic consumption of petroleum products in the country is growing steadily and currently amounts to about 13 million tge. According to Syrian experts, this trend will continue, so the local downstream needs to be expanded and modernized. At this stage, the country’s oil refining capacity is planned to be increased to 25 million tg through the construction of two new refineries. In the future, Syria intends to completely abandon the export of crude oil and maintain only the export of petroleum products.

Today, it can be stated that most major projects in the field of infrastructure development of the Syrian oil industry are either already being implemented or promised to Russian companies. Given that two years ago they only had plans in Syria, this result can be called a breakthrough.

It is clear, of course, that this breakthrough was a consequence of the political support provided to the Syrian leader in Russia, as well as debt write-off.

Now Russian companies are striving to conclude agreements with the Syrian side on a non-competitive basis, which, according to representatives of the Russian-Syrian Business Council, is the shortest way to start implementing specific projects. According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade, the Syrian leadership is meeting Russia halfway on this issue.

Syria in maps October 2nd, 2015

A small guide to the physical, economic, social geography of the Syrian Arab Republic. Especially for armchair analysts.

Territory: 185.18 thousand sq. km. Most of the country's territory lies on an arid plateau, which is dotted with mountain ranges. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

Coastline length: about 175 km.

Subtropical Mediterranean climate on the coast and dry continental in the interior.

The average January temperature ranges from +4 °C in the eastern regions to +12 °C on the coast. The average temperature in July ranges from +33 °C to +26 °C, respectively.

Population: 22 million (2011 estimate). To date, between 3 and 4 million people have fled the country.

GDP: 107.4 billion dollars (as of 2011).

Physical card.

Another physical map.

Population density.

Transport infrastructure. Link .

Oil and gas. Deposits, infrastructure, pipelines.

The largest deposits are located in the extreme northeast of the country. The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

In addition to oil, the country has large reserves of phosphorites. Their deposit is being developed in the Khneifis area.

Other mineral resources include deposits of chromium, uranium, iron ore, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, and dolomite. But they are relatively small.

Oil production and consumption over time.

Economic zones of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

Only a third of the country's territory is suitable for agriculture. Most of the fertile land is located in the coastal strip, another part stretches in a strip from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the border with Turkey. The third fertile zone is the Euphrates River valley.

Dynamics of public debt since 2010.

Syria (Syrian Arab Republic)- a state located in South-West Asia.

Syria is included in the list of countries in the Middle East.

Map

Geography

The country's population is 22 million people.

The capital is the city of Damascus.

Damascus is not the largest city in Syria. The largest city is Aleppo, its population is two and a half million people. Damascus has a population of 1 million 750 thousand people.

The third major city in Syria is Homs. Its population is 900 thousand people.

Syria shares land borders with Lebanon, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and Iraq.

The country is located on the Mediterranean coast.

Syria has both mountains and plains.

Syria has forests that occupy 2.6% of the country's total area. There are both coniferous and subtropical evergreen forests.

Syria is administratively divided into 14 governorates: Damascus, Rif Damascus, Deir ez-Zor, Daraa, Idlib, Latakia, Raqqa, Tartus, Aleppo, Hama, Hasakah, Homs, Quneitra, Es-Suwayda.

Syria has one time zone. The difference with Greenwich is +2 hours.

There are a large number of mountain ranges and mountain systems in Syria: the Jebel Ar-Ruwaq range, the Jebel Abu Rujmain range, the Jebel Bishri range, the Jebel Ansaria range, the Anti-Lebanon mountains, the Kurdish mountains.

The highest point in Syria is Mount Hermon. The height of this peak is 2814 meters. The border with Israel runs along the top of this mountain, so this mountain is also considered the highest point in Israel.

The largest Syrian river is the Euphrates. Its total length across the territory of all countries is 2700 km.

Another major Syrian river is the Tigris.

The largest Syrian lake is Al-Hassad. Its length is 80 km and its width is 8 km.

Roads

The total length of railways in Syria is 2,750 km. Two types of gauge are used: European (Stephenson) with a width of 1435 mm and Japanese (width 1050 mm). From the capital of the country there is a passenger connection with Aleppo and Homs. Syria has direct rail links with Turkey, Iraq and Jordan.

There are about 26,000 km of roads in Syria. There are several expressways connecting Damascus with major cities. The quality of the roads is satisfactory; many roads were seriously damaged during the ongoing Civil War.

Story

Syria is the country where agriculture arose, but historians often give the palm in this matter to Egypt, citing the fact that at the time of the emergence of agriculture, the territory of modern Syria was part of Ancient Egypt.

Syria has a unique history; powerful ancient and medieval states and empires arose on its territory:

a) Ancient Syria (before 635 AD) - the emergence of the city-state of Ebla (III millennium BC), the capture of Syria by Ancient Egypt (II millennium BC), the Aramaic Kingdom (X-VIII centuries BC) , capture of Syria by the Assyrian kingdom (802 BC), capture of Syria by Alexander the Great (332 BC) and its inclusion in Macedonia, conquest of Syria by Great Armenia (83 BC), conquest of Syria by Ancient Rome (64 BC) BC), the formation of the separatist state of the Palmyra kingdom on the territory of Syria, the collapse of Ancient Rome and the inclusion of Syria into the Byzantine Empire (late 4th century AD);

b) Medieval Syria (from 635) - the capture and inclusion of Syria into the Arab Caliphate (682 AD), the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars (1260), the capture of Syria by the Mamluks and annexation to Egypt (1260), the conquest of Syria by the Ottoman Empire (1517), return of Syria to Egyptian control (1833), return to the Ottoman Empire (1840);

c) Recent times and modern times - the formation of the Damascus Caliphate (1918), the defeat of the Caliphate from France and the establishment of French rule (1920), the proclamation of a republic (1932) with the preservation of the power of the French mandate, gaining complete independence from France (1946), the war against Israel (1948) and the defeat of Syria, unification with Egypt and the formation of the United Arab Republic (1958), the collapse of the United Arab Republic (1963), a military coup (1966), a course towards building socialism (1969) and rapprochement with USSR, Syrian-Israeli war (1973), withdrawal of Syrian occupation forces from Lebanon (2005), anti-government uprising and Civil War (since 2011).

Minerals

Syria is not considered a country that is rich in mineral resources. Of the strategic hydrocarbons, the country has only oil in sufficient quantities. There is little natural gas in the country, and there is no coal in Syria.

Other minerals produced in Syria include phosphorites, uranium, chromium, iron, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, dolomite, asphalt, limestone, tuff, basalt, and table salt.

Climate

Syria has two types of climate - Mediterranean subtropical and arid continental. On the Mediterranean coast the climate is subtropical, with hot and humid summers and mild and rainy winters. In the center and south of the country, summers are dry and hot, and winters are cool, with frosts occurring in desert areas. Sometimes there may be a little snow every few years in the winter.

The Mediterranean coast is the most populated and developed part of the country, with a large area of ​​arable land occupied by plantations of various agricultural crops. The climate on the coast is subtropical Mediterranean, with mild, humid winters and dry, moderately hot summers. Evergreen subtropical tree and shrub vegetation dominates here. Luxurious pebble and sandy beaches stretch along the entire coast.

The historical, cultural, and economic center of the country is the capital of the country, Damascus (1.7 million people) - one of the oldest cities in the world. In the old part of the city, surrounded by an ancient fortress wall, there are many beautiful ancient buildings and historical monuments: the famous Umayyad Mosque, Al-Azema Palace, etc. Massive old buildings with large portals coexist with buildings from the times of French classicism and modern architecture.

Nature

The territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea eastward through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, is divided into five natural regions: the Maritime Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syrian Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria Mountains and the valley of the El-Asi River, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.

The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria Mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15–30 km.

Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, is the Ansaria (En-Nusairiya) mountain range composed of limestones, running parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. wide. 65 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). On the western, highly dissected slopes of the mountains, exposed to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, a lot of precipitation falls. Small rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea originate in these mountains. The rivers have carved out deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop off abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot, dry air masses and receives significantly less precipitation.

At the southern end of the Ansaria ridge there is the Tripoli-Khom intermountain passage. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir river flows in a western direction, which over many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.

To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khomsky Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle reaches of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Ghab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high soil fertility, irrigated agriculture is developed here.

Directly adjacent to Al-Gab from the east are the Ez-Zawiya mountains, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460–600 m, maximum elevations reaching 900 m.

To the south of the Ansaria ridge extend the Anti-Lebanon and El-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones, which absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the mountain there are many springs that are used to irrigate the lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the El-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.

The large eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Anti-Lebanon ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed Druz Mountains, rising up to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse material formed from erupted rocks, which makes the economic use of this area difficult. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are heavily weathered, did thick, fertile soils form. To the east of the Zawiya Mountains, the terrain becomes undulating. Its surface gradually decreases from approximately 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the northeast of the country there are medium-high (more than 500 m above sea level) Abd el-Azis mountains (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, cutting to a depth of 30–60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire area, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir-ez -Zor. Their height decreases eastward from 2000 m (Maaloula range north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri Mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used only as winter pastures.

The eastern part of Syria in a south-eastern direction is crossed by the deep transit river Euphrates with large left tributaries Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle reaches of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its flow is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, the large El Assad reservoir was formed with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El Asi (Orontes), which originates in the mountains of Lebanon, flows through the depression of the Syrian graben and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers of the Mediterranean basin, which are fullest during the winter rainy season and become shallow in the summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris River flows for 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.

In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, groundwater accumulations and rivers are used for irrigated agriculture, through which a significant share of the country's electricity is generated. Approximately 12% of cultivated land is irrigated, with approx. 20% of them are thanks to wells. On the remaining irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its tributaries - Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow the area of ​​irrigated land and electricity production to be brought to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).

The natural vegetation of Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic influence. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing coniferous and deciduous species in better-watered, sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficus. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.

Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, and citrus fruits are grown in the river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on the gentle slopes. Corn, barley, and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the ridge. Ansaria and others, and in the lowlands of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock (mainly sheep). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under artificial irrigation conditions.

In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear, which are represented mainly by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, and wormwood. Nevertheless, even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by nomads.

The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Among the predators one can sometimes find a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal; in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets; among ungulates there are antelope, gazelle, and wild ass onager. Rodents such as jerboas are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares are also found. Reptiles are typical: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates Valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans). Throughout the country there are larks, hazel grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among the predators there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.

Most of the country is occupied by gray soils; chestnut soils are common in the north and west; in the mountains in the west there are also areas of brown, the most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowland and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum-ridden.

Climate

The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior regions it is continental and arid. There is little precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant amounts of precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowlands and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.

Western Syria. The climate of the coastal strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is almost no precipitation. At low altitudes during this season the weather is uncomfortable for humans: during the day the air warms up to 30–35° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are approximately 5° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11° C lower.

Average winter temperatures are 13–15° C, falling below 0° C only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only in the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria Range, where snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the daytime temperature rises to 18–21 ° C.

Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh ranges, the average precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian Desert, which extends to the east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.

The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as is the case in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. Daytime temperatures in July-August often exceed 38° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in the summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, steppe and desert areas are approximately 5.5° C cooler than the coastal zone. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7° C, and Aleb - 6° C. In the north of the steppe zone there are often frosts and snowfall, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Night temperatures in winter drop well below 0°C.

Attractions

Despite the fact that Syria is a relatively small country, its territory contains a great many unique monuments of various cultures and eras, allowing tourists to make a unique journey through time.

The capital of Syria, Damascus, is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and its historical part is a unique urban monument with many important cultural and historical sites. The main one is the Basilica of St. Zechariah, which houses the shrine of John the Baptist.

The ancient city of Bosra has preserved city streets and the largest theater in the Middle East. The city of Apamea boasts one of the longest main streets with a colonnade, and the city of Kanawat boasts the ruins of the Temple of Helios. In general, in Syria there is a huge number of monuments of ancient history and ancient times: the ruins of the Aramaic city of Ain Dara, the ruins of the Phoenician city of Amrit, the ruins of the ancient city of Dura Europos, the ruins of ancient Philipopolis, as well as the city of Mari (the capital of the ancient Mesopotamian state) and the city of Ebla ( capital of the contemporary state of Akkad and Sumer). In addition, many historical monuments have been preserved in the ancient cities of Halabiya, Hama, Aleppo, Ugarit and Harbak. And the city of Palmyra was at one time the main rival of Rome in the East. Now it is famous throughout the world for such buildings as the complex of the Temple of Bel, the Temple of Baalshamin, the Great Colonnade, the Valley of the Tombs, etc. The dead Byzantine cities that abound in Syria are of no less interest.

There are also a large number of monuments to the history of Christianity in the country. In Damascus, the main ones are Straight Street, Bab Kisan Tower, the underground church of St. Ananias and the Basilica of St. Zechariah. In addition, many of the first Christian monasteries are scattered throughout the country: St. Takla, St. Sergius, St. Simeon, etc. Among other Christian attractions, it is worth noting the Cathedral of St. Sergius, the Basilica of Kalb Loze, the Church of Kanisa Umm Zunnar and the “Cave of the First Blood” » Makam Arbain.

Well, among the monuments of the Islamic period, the most famous are the Umayyad Mosque and the Qasr al-Azem Palace in Damascus, the Aleppo citadel, the Tekkiya Sulaymaniyah dervish monastery complex, the Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi palace and the Salah ad-Din fortress.

Kitchen

The cuisine of Syria is based on Arab, Aramaic and Caucasian traditions and is replete with many original dishes that will please even the most discerning gourmets. A characteristic feature of the local cuisine is the widespread use of spices, olive oil, grains, dairy products and fresh vegetables. Traditional dishes that are found everywhere here include unleavened flatbreads “khobz”, stuffed eggplants “makdus”, boiled wheat porridge “burgul”, fermented milk products “lyabne”, all kinds of pureed snacks, green salad “tabbouleh” and others.

Meat treats are dominated by hearty dishes, for example, baked lamb with nuts and rice “mensaf” or pilaf with spices and raisins “kabsa”. No less interesting and nutritious are such dishes as chicken with nut-rice filling “jaj mahshi”, lamb chop “kastaleta”, sheep legs “makkadem”, lamb cutlets “kafta”, lamb on a spit “meshvi”, the famous “dolma” , as well as “kebabs”, all kinds of kebabs, puff pastries and a variety of seafood.

The most popular dessert, which is usually used to complete any meal here, is baklava. Also worth trying are kunafa (a dish made from dough, cheese and nuts), mhalabie semolina pudding and baked chestnuts. All these delights are washed down with very strong and sweet coffee or tea. Various juices, fermented milk drink “ayran” and raisin compote “jelab” are also widespread. The most common alcoholic drink is arak, aniseed vodka.

Accommodation

In large cities of Syria, most hotels have a category of 3* or more, and their living conditions fully correspond to the stated ones. In most cases, hotels should be booked in advance.

The most luxurious hotel complexes are mainly located on the coast, and their territory necessarily includes swimming pools, fitness centers, tennis courts and massage areas. Hotels in the mid-price category can be found in any city; they are quite comfortable, but in such establishments the full range of services that is usual for European hotels is not always available. Inexpensive hotels and guest houses are scattered throughout the country, however, the level of service in them is minimal, and the rooms are cramped and not very clean.

It should be noted that the cost of living in Syrian hotels is low and, as a rule, reflects the level of comfort and service. Very often breakfast is included in the price. The most expensive hotels in the country are hotels of large hotel operators (Holiday Inn, InterContinental and Rotana).

Entertainment and relaxation

The coastline of Syria is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which there are many beaches surrounded by picturesque plains that gradually turn into hills and mountains. Moreover, the swimming season here is very long - from May to November. The most popular beaches in Syria are located near the city of Latakia. First of all, this is Al Samra Beach, the territory of which is divided between Syria and Turkey. No less popular are beaches such as Badrouseigh and Ras al-Bassit, as well as Wadi al-Qandil beach with black volcanic sand. The most popular active recreation option on the coast is diving. Moreover, entire diving tours are organized here for him.

Rock climbing is also popular among extreme sports enthusiasts. The mountains here are so rich in mineral springs that in the summer tourists come here for medical procedures and mud therapy. For this purpose, it is worth going to cities such as Salma, Kasab and Draykish. Moreover, the country's mountainous terrain is popular not only in summer, but also in winter. For example, the town of Slenfe is a health resort in summer, and in winter it turns into a ski resort.

Vacationers with the whole family are recommended to visit the water parks in Damascus and Latakia, which offer a lot of water attractions. In addition, all major cities of the country have amusement parks, sports grounds, restaurants, bars and cultural institutions.

If we talk about holidays, both Muslim and Christian religious dates, as well as state dates, are celebrated here. The country also hosts many colorful festivals: the Flower Festival, the International Flower Show, the Syrian Theater Festival, the Cotton Festival, the Grapevine Festival, the Silk Road Festival, the Palmyra Festival, etc.

Shopping

Syria can rightfully be called a real paradise for shopping lovers. The fact is that this country is literally famous throughout the world for its oriental bazaars, where, if desired, you can find anything you want: from spices to furniture. Moreover, prices in the markets are much lower than in other trading establishments. Of course, you should bargain in such places. The country's best markets are in Aleppo and Damascus.

Among the range of goods offered here, the most popular are handmade carpets, national costumes, silk scarves, silver and gold jewelry, sheep skins, as well as products made of leather, mother-of-pearl and wood. In addition, you should pay attention to gastronomic souvenirs, for example, coffee with cardamom, oriental sweets, spices and olive oil.

In addition to markets, in large cities in Syria there are a great many shopping centers, stores with branded clothing, supermarkets and small private shops.

It should be borne in mind that in no store here is it possible to pay in foreign currency: only the Syrian pound or non-cash payments are in circulation.

Most shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 21:00, and private shops often have individual opening hours.

Transport

The most convenient way to get to Syria is by plane, since the country has two international airports (near Damascus and Aleppo). In addition, Syria is connected with neighboring countries by railways, roads, and seaports.

Within the country you can travel by plane, train, bus, minibus and minibus. Public urban transport in Syria is represented by buses and taxis. Bus tickets are sold from the conductor or driver and are quite cheap. The cost of a taxi ride should be discussed with the driver before boarding the car.

Renting a car in Syria is quite expensive: prices here are twice as high as in Europe. Gasoline is also quite expensive, and most of the road signs are in Arabic, making travel difficult.

Connection

Syria's telephone system is quite well developed and is currently undergoing modernization. Pay phones are installed in all public places, so there will be no problems with communication here. Moreover, they work both with small coins and with cards that are sold everywhere. In addition, you can call abroad from a specialized call center or from a hotel (25% more expensive).

Mobile communications operate in the GSM-900/1800 standard and have fairly dense coverage. Roaming is available to all subscribers of major Russian operators. Phone rental is available at the offices of local cellular companies (Mobile Syria and Spacetel Syria).

The Internet in Syria is developing very quickly, however, the connection speed here is often not very high. Internet cafes operate in all major cities of the country.

Safety

If you follow a few simple rules, Syria will turn out to be a completely safe and hospitable country. Thus, when entering houses and mosques, you must take off your shoes, and it is forbidden to walk around those praying in front. Women should not wear short skirts or bare-shoulder clothing. Photographing transport and military facilities, government institutions, as well as local women is prohibited. Filming in mosques is also strictly prohibited.

Documents or their photocopies should always be carried with you. It is worth noting that alcoholic drinks are sold everywhere here, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. In addition, in Syria it is strongly recommended not to enter into any political discussions, including those related to Israel.

To enter the country you will need medical insurance. Prevention of polio, tetanus, hepatitis, typhus and malaria is also recommended. Local tap water is relatively safe, but it is still better to buy bottled water.

Business

The Syrian economy is based on oil exports, agriculture, chemical, food and textile industries. Moreover, the state fully controls the energy sector, finance, aviation and rail transport. However, now, as part of the course for gradual modernization and liberalization of the economy proclaimed by law, public sector enterprises have been given the right to enter foreign markets and attract foreign investment.

The private sector is currently developing quite actively in the country. In total, registering a private company here takes less than a month. To do this, the entrepreneur must submit a formal application to reserve the name of his company, as well as to register it with the Department of Internal Trade.

Real estate

Syria is one of the last countries in the Middle East to open the housing market to non-residents. Today, foreign citizens have the opportunity to purchase real estate, subject to a number of restrictions in the law. First of all, the area of ​​the acquired property must be at least 140 m2. Foreign buyers are also required to obtain prior approval from the country's Ministry of Interior. In addition, legal nuances that concern foreigners include a ban on the subsequent sale of the acquired property within the next two years after purchase.

The average cost of apartments in Syria ranges from $280,000 to $350,000, and the cost of villas starts at $400,000.

In addition, you need to know that since 2009, a smoking ban began to apply in Syria. Therefore, smokers caught with a cigarette in any public place will have to pay a fine (about $50). It is worth noting that this ban also applies to hookah smoking. It is noteworthy that alcohol is not prohibited in the country. The exception is Ramadan, during which drinking alcohol in public places is prohibited even for non-Muslims.

Visa information

To travel to Syria, citizens of the Russian Federation and CIS countries need a tourist or transit visa. Any of them can be issued at the Moscow Consular Section of the Syrian Embassy (Mansurovsky Lane, 4) or immediately upon arrival in the country (at the airport or at the border crossing with any of the countries neighboring Syria, except Israel).

Population

The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (approx. 90%). By religion they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority are the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the Taurus foothills, north of Aleppo, and on the Al Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jarabulus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni branch of Islam. The majority of Kurds live in rural areas. Many Kurds lead a semi-nomadic life. In the cities (mainly Damascus and Aleppo), Kurds are primarily engaged in manual labor. Wealthy Kurds derive their income primarily from owning real estate. Some Kurds have reached high official positions, but they are practically not involved in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2–3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived in the late 19th century, but most emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians profess Christianity and have retained their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasakah. As a rule, Armenians are traders, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as liberal professions. Turkmens and Circassians also live in Syria. Turkmen profess Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. They originally led a nomadic lifestyle, but are now primarily engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism on the Al-Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or farming in the Aleppo region. Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and native language, although they also speak Arabic. Approximately half of the Circassians lived in the Quneitra governorate, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus. The smallest among national minorities are nomadic gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).

Story

Historically, Syria included Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and what is now Syria. The country occupied a favorable strategic position and its coastal cities were important Phoenician trading points. Syria was later part of the Roman, Persian, Egyptian and Babylonian empires. As a result, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire and, along with Lebanon, was transferred to France after the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The Syrians were never particularly tolerant of being invaded (they were even independent in 1918-20), and in 1925-26 they staged a rebellion that led to France bombing Damascus.

In 1932, parliamentary elections were held in Syria, and although most of the candidates were pro-French, Syria refused to recognize the French version of the constitution. In 1939, France granted Turkey the Syrian province of Alexandretta, which caused dissatisfaction with its policies among the local population. France promised to grant Syria independence in 1941, but did not do so until 1946.

Civilized rule did not last long in Syria: in 1954, after several military coups, the Baath Party, created in 1940 by a Christian leader, took control of the country. The main idea of ​​the party was the creation of a single Arab state, where Syria would no longer be an independent country. Everything was moving towards the formation of a New United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958, but many people did not support this idea, and a wave of armed uprisings took place throughout the country. By 1966, the Baath Party had returned to power, but the celebrations were marred by the outbreak of the Six-Day War with Israel, and in 1970 there was armed conflict with Jordan. As a result of all these armed clashes, a coup took place in the country and Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power.

Since 1971, Assad has maintained his presidency through force and subterfuge; he strengthens Syria's position in the Middle East by concluding peace treaties and establishing trade relations. In 1999, he was elected for the fifth time to a seven-year presidential term with a majority of 99.9% of the vote. In the 1990s. the fall in oil prices forced the countries of the Middle East to unite, and Assad took advantage of the Gulf War in early 1991 to improve the economic situation in the country. During the war, Syria joined the anti-Iraq coalition, which made a favorable impression on the West, although it still remains on Washington's list of countries that support terrorism.

In 1997, Syria left the list of countries through which drug trafficking passes, and Assad strengthened ties with the EU, Turkey and America. Attempts to diversify the oil-based economy by investing in the agricultural complex were not entirely successful. In early 2000, U.S. State Department officials discussed whether to remove Syria from the list of countries that sponsor terrorism, on the grounds that there had been no evidence of Syrian involvement in terrorist acts since 1986. The chaotic retreat of Israeli units from eastern Lebanon in 2000 under fire from the Syrian-backed Herzbollah faction delayed further discussion of Syrian loyalty. The death of President Assad has called into question the peaceful resolution of various conflicts in the Middle East. After Assad, his son Bashar became president in June 2000.

Culture

You're unlikely to hear traditional Arabic singers on the streets of Damascus, but there is an interesting hybrid of Arabic-style singers and Western musicians. Favorite performers in Syria are Mayada al-Hanawi and Asala Nasri. The Bedouins have their own musical traditions, where several men sing a monotonous recitative that serves as accompaniment for a belly dancer.

Art in the Arab world is primarily architecture, perhaps because Islam prohibits the depiction of living objects. Everywhere in Syria you come across ancient and classical sites and examples of architecture not only from Muslims, but from Romans and Byzantines. There are several churches left over from the Crusaders. The Qur'an is one of the greatest examples of classical Arabic writing. Al-Muallaqat is an ancient collection of Arabic poetry. For 10 centuries, Syria was the center of poetry in the Arab world, the best poems being written by Al-Mutanabbi (who considered himself a prophet) and Abu Firas al-Hamdani. One of the monuments of Arabic literature is Alf Laila wa Laila (“A Thousand and One Nights”), a collection of stories about different times and peoples. Bedouin art in Syria is represented by silver jewelry, colorful fabrics and bladed weapons.

Hospitality is the main core of Arab life. It is customary for Syrian families, particularly those living in the desert, to invite strangers to visit. The tradition developed due to the difficulties of life in the desert, where a person cannot survive without water, food and friendly support. Wherever you are in Syria, you will hear the word "tafaddal" ("welcome") when people invite you over for a cup of tea.

Islam is the main religion of Syria. It is a monotheistic religion and the Koran is the holy book of Islam. Five times a day, Muslims, heeding the call of the muezzin from the top of the minaret, pray. Islam shares similarities with Christianity and Judaism, and therefore Muslims treat Christians and Jews with respect, and Jesus is revered in Islam as one of the prophets of Allah. Muhammad was the last prophet through whom Allah transmitted the Quran to Muslims. Most Syrian Muslims are Sunni, but there are also Shiites, Druze and Alawites. The Druze mostly live near the Jordanian border and their faith is shrouded in mystery. Alawites live in Lattakia and Hama Homs.

Islam forbids eating pork and drinking alcoholic beverages, and this rule applies to a greater or lesser extent throughout Syria. Islam also tends to separate the sexes, for example there are public places where only men are allowed. Although many places also have a family room where women are allowed. When Syrians eat, they usually order a selection of mezze appetizers first, and therefore the main courses that Syrians eat from the same plate. Arabic unleavened bread - khobz - is used with almost all dishes. Other dishes include falafel, fried bean balls, shawarma, a specially prepared chopped lamb, and fuul, a fava bean paste with garlic and lemon. Mensaf is a Bedouin dish - a whole lamb, head on, served with rice and nuts.

Economy

Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, railway and air transport have been entirely under the control of the state for a long time. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, the service sector, motor transport and housing construction. The annual growth of GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. $58.01 billion, per capita income was $3,300. According to 2003 data, GDP was divided by sector as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry – 29.4% and other services – 42.1%.

Syria is a major center of maritime and land trade. In this regard, an industry such as warehousing has developed. Large oil storage facilities were built at the oil refineries in Homs and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. The storage areas for metals and building materials were significantly increased, and large elevators were built.

Policy

Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by a centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the armed seizure of power by Baath supporters in 1963. From November 1970 to June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez al-Assad, the leader of the military wing of the Baath, who came to leadership as a result of a coup, displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad served as President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Secretary General of the regional Ba'ath leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, consisting of 250 deputies and serving as a unicameral parliament, elected by universal suffrage for a 4-year term.

The military, loyal to General Assad, who found themselves in power, soon convened a legislative body - the People's Council, which was given the development of a draft permanent constitution as a priority task. It was supposed to replace the provisional constitution of the country introduced by the Baath in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the Baath and its main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Democratic Socialist Unionist Party and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a referendum. According to the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by universal direct and secret suffrage. All citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote.

Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member electoral districts, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front nominates a common unofficial list of candidates; Formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. The voting results are determined using the majority system of relative majority.

The powers of parliament, according to the constitution, include passing laws, discussing government policies, approving the state budget and plans for socio-economic development, ratifying the most important international treaties and agreements, and declaring a general amnesty. Only the People's Council has the authority to make changes to the constitution and regulations of its activities. At the same time, the Syrian Constitution does not consistently delineate the substantive scope of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.

The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. A candidate for this post is nominated by the People's Council on the proposal of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to receive a majority of votes of those who took part in the referendum.

In accordance with the basic law of the country, the President of Syria monitors compliance with the constitution and guarantees the operation of the state mechanism, develops (in consultation with the government) national policy and controls its implementation. He appoints and dismisses civilian and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and senior diplomats, exercises the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicts, and is the supreme commander in chief. The President has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if ratified by parliament), and conclude and terminate international treaties.

The head of state has the right to convene emergency sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them for consideration by the People's Council. He can veto a law passed by the legislature, which needs at least a two-thirds vote to override it. In emergency circumstances, the president can himself issue decrees during breaks between parliamentary sessions. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. His powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, but for specific reasons such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can hold the president accountable only in cases of high treason.

The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, supervises the implementation of laws, participates together with the president in developing state policies and implements them, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the security of the country, etc. The Prime Minister and ministers are responsible only to the President.