Andes (mountains). Tourism and local residents. Definition of the Andes, geography of the Andes, northern Andes, central Andes, southern Andes, peaks of the Andes, population of the Andes, parks in the Andes, climate of the Andes, vegetation and soils of the Andes, fauna of the Andes, ecology of the Andes, industry of the Andes, mining

Cordilleras or Andes (Cordilleros de Los Andes) is the Spanish name for a huge mountain system (from the Peruvian word Anti, copper); The ridges near Cuzco were previously called by this name, but later the mountain range of South America began to be called this. The Spaniards and Spanish-Americans also call part of the ranges of Central America, Mexico and the SW United States Cardillera, but it is completely wrong to call the mountains of these countries the same name as the huge mountain range of South America, which, starting in the extreme south, at Cape Horn, stretches almost parallel to the Pacific Ocean, along the entire southern.

America to the Isthmus of Panama, for almost 12,000 km. The mountain ranges of the western part of the North American continent have no connection with the South American Cordilleras or the Andes; in addition to the different direction of the ridges, they are separated from the Andes by the lowlands of the Isthmus of Panama, Nicaragua and the Isthmus of Teguantenevo.

To prevent misunderstandings, it is therefore better to call the South American Cordillera the Andes. They mostly consist of a whole series of high ridges, running more or less parallel to one another and covering with their uplands and slopes almost 1/6 of the entire southern part. America.

General description of the Andes mountain system.

Description of the Andes mountain system.

A mountain system of enormous extent, with complex orography and varied geological structure, differs sharply from the eastern part of South America. It is characterized by completely different patterns of formation of relief, climates and a different composition of the organic world.

The nature of the Andes is extremely diverse. This is explained, first of all, by their enormous extent from north to south. The Andes lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes Northern, central and southern parts of the Andes differ from each other no less than, for example, the Amazon from Pampa or Patagonia.

The Andes appeared due to new (Cenozoic-Alpine) folding, the manifestation of which ranged from 60 million years to the present day. This also explains the tectonic activity manifested in the form of earthquakes.

The Andes are revived mountains, erected by new uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordilleran) folded geosynclinal belt. The Andes are rich in ores, mainly non-ferrous metals, and in the foredeep and foothill troughs - oil and gas. They consist mainly of meridional parallel ridges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions.

An interoceanic divide runs through the Andes, where the Amazon and its tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Paraná, Magdalena River and Patagonian River, originate. The highest of the world's great lakes, Titicaca, lies in the Andes.

The windward wet slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with montane moist equatorial and tropical forests. In the Subtropical Andes there are evergreen dry subtropical forests and shrubs, south of 38° south latitude there are moist evergreen and mixed forests. Vegetation of the high mountain plateaus: in the north - the mountain equatorial meadows of Paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Puna - the dry high-mountain tropical steppes of the Halka, in the west of Puna and throughout the Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, potatoes and other valuable plants.

Classification of the Andes.

Depending on the position in a particular climatic zone and on differences in orography and structure, the Andes are divided into regions, each of which has its own characteristics of relief, climate and altitudinal zone.

The Andes are distinguished: Caribbean Andes, Northern Andes, lying in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, Central Andes of the tropical zone, subtropical Chilean-Argentine Andes and Southern Andes, lying within the temperate zone. Particular attention is paid to the island region - Tierra del Fuego.

From Cape Horn the main chain of the Andes runs along west bank Tierra del Fuego and consists of rocky peaks from 2000 - 3000 altitudes above sea level; the highest of them is Sacramento, 6910 above sea level. The Patagonian Andes go straight north to 42° S. sh., accompanied by parallel rocky, mountainous islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Chilean Andes stretch from 42° S. w. to 21° south w. and form a continuous chain, dividing in a northern direction into several ridges. The highest point not only of this region, but of the entire Andes is Aconcogua 6960 above sea level).

Between the Chilean Cordillera and the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of 200 - 375 km, there are huge plains lying at an altitude of 1000 - 1500 above sea level. In the south these plains are covered with rich vegetation, but the higher mountain regions are completely devoid of it. The Bolivian Andes form the central part of the entire system and head north from 21° S. to 14° S huge masses of rocks stretching in length over almost seven degrees of latitude, and in width over a distance of 600 - 625 km. About 19°S w. the mountain range is divided into two huge longitudinal parallel ridges to the east - the Real Cordillera and to the west - the Coastal. These ridges enclose the Desaguadero Highlands, which stretches for 1000 km. in length and 75 - 200 km. in width. These parallel ridges of the cordillera stretch over a distance of about 575 km. one from the other and are connected, at some points, by huge transverse groups or single ridges, cutting them like veins. The slope to the Pacific Ocean is very steep, it is also steep to the east, from where spurs diverge to the low-lying plains.

The main peaks of the Coastal Cordillera: Sajama 6520m. 18°7′ (S and 68°52′ W, Illimani 6457 m. 16°38 S and 67°49′ W, Peruvian Cordillera. separated from the Pacific Ocean by a desert of 100 - 250 km wide, extending from 14° to 5°, and is divided into two eastern spurs - one running to the northwest, between the Marañon and Guallaga rivers, the other between Guallaga and Ucayalle lies the Pasco or Guanuco highlands. The Cordillera of Ecuador begins at 5°S and extends north to the Quito Highlands, surrounded by the most magnificent volcanoes in the world in the eastern branch: Sangay, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, in the western branch - Chimborazo, on the eastern chain. . there is the Paramo mountain node, from which there are three separate chains: Suma Paz - northeast past Lake Maracaibo to Caracas, near the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, between the Cauca and Magdalena rivers.

Choco - along the Pacific coast to the Isthmus of Panama. Here is the Tolimo volcano 4°46′ N. and 75°37′W. The giant Andes mountain range intersects between 35°S. and 10° N many, mostly narrow, steep and dangerous passes and roads at heights equal to the highest peaks of European mountains, such as, for example, the passes between Arequipa and Puna (and the highest pass between Lima and Pasco. The most convenient of them are accessible only to travel by mules and llamas, or carrying travelers on the backs of the natives. Along the Andes for 25,000 km, there is a large trade road from Trujillo to Papayan.

In Peru there is a railway through the main ridge of the Cordillera, from the ocean east to the basin of Lake Titicaca. The geological structure of the Andes of South America is partly granite, gneiss, mica and slate, but mainly diorite, porphyry, basalt mixed with limestone, sandstone and conglomerates. Minerals found here: salt, gypsum and, at high altitudes, veins of coal; The Cordillera is especially rich in gold, silver, platinum, mercury, copper, iron, lead, topazes, amethysts and other precious stones.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

The northern latitudinal segment of the Andes from the island of Trinidad to the Maracaibo lowland differs in orographic features and structure, as well as in the nature of climatic conditions and vegetation, from the Andes system proper and forms a special physical-geographical country.

The Caribbean Andes belong to the Antillean-Caribbean folded region, which, in terms of its structure and development, differs from both the Cordillera North America, and from the Andes proper.
There is a point of view according to which the Antilles-Caribbean region is the western sector of Tethys, separated as a result of the “disclosure” Atlantic Ocean.

On the mainland, the Caribbean Andes consist of two anticlinal zones, which correspond to the Cordillera da Costa and Sierra del Interior ranges, separated by a wide valley of an extensive synclinal zone. Near the Bay of Barcelona, ​​the mountains are interrupted, splitting into two parts - western and eastern. On the platform side, the Sierra del Interior is separated by a deep fault from the oil-bearing subandean trough, which merges in relief with the Orinoco lowland. A deep fault also separates the Caribbean Andes system from the Cordillera de Merida. In the north, a synclinal trough submerged by the sea separates the anticlinorium of the Margarita - Tobago islands from the mainland. The continuation of these structures can be traced on the Paraguana and Goajira peninsulas.

All mountain structures of the Caribbean Andes are composed of folded rocks of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic and are penetrated by intrusions of various ages. Their modern relief was formed under the influence of repeated uplifts, the last of which, accompanied by subsidence - synclinal zones and faults, occurred in the Neogene. The entire Caribbean Andean system is seismic but has no active volcanoes. The relief of the mountains is blocky, medium-altitude, the highest peaks exceed 2500 m, the mountain ranges are separated from each other by through erosion and tectonic depressions.

Situated on the border between the subequatorial and tropical zones, the Caribbean Andes, especially the islands and peninsulas of Paraguana and Goajira, have a drier climate than neighboring areas. All year round they are exposed to tropical air brought by the northeast trade wind. Annual precipitation amounts do not exceed 1000 mm, but more often they are even below 500 mm. The bulk of them fall from May to November, but in the driest northern regions the wet period lasts only two to three months. From the mountains to the side Caribbean Sea small short streams flow down, carrying large amounts of debris to the shore; the places where limestones come to the surface are almost completely waterless.

The lagoonal coasts of the mainland and islands are covered with wide strips of mangroves; the dry lowlands are dominated by thickets such as moite, consisting of candelabra-shaped cacti, prickly pears, milkweeds, and mosquitoes. Among this gray-green vegetation, gray soil or yellow sand shines through. The more abundantly irrigated mountain slopes and valleys open to the sea are covered with mixed forests, which combine evergreen and deciduous species, coniferous and deciduous tree species. The upper parts of the mountains are used as pastures. At a low altitude above sea level, groves or single specimens of royal and coconut palms stand out as bright spots. The entire northern coast of Venezuela has been turned into a resort and tourist area, with beaches, hotels and parks.

In a wide valley, separated from the sea by the Cordillera da Costa ridge, and on the slopes of the surrounding mountains, lies the capital of Venezuela - Caracas. The mountain slopes and plains cleared of forest are occupied by plantations of coffee and chocolate trees, cotton, tobacco, and sisal.

Northern Andes

The northern section of the Andes proper from the Caribbean coast to the border between Ecuador and Peru in the south is known by this name. Here, in the region of 4-5° S, there is a fault separating the Northern Andes from the Central Andes.

Off the coast of the Caribbean Sea in Colombia and Venezuela, fan-shaped diverging ridges alternate with foothill depressions and wide intermountain valleys, reaching a total width of 450 km. In the south, within Ecuador, the entire system narrows to 100 km. In the structure of the main part of the Northern Andes (approximately between 2 and 8° N) all the main orotectonic elements of the Andean system are clearly expressed. The narrow, low and highly dissected Coast Range stretches along the Pacific coast. It is separated from the rest of the Andes by the longitudinal tectonic depression of the Atrato River. To the east, the higher and more massive ridges of the Western and Central Cordillera rise parallel to each other, separated by the narrow valley of the Cauqui River. The Cordillera Central is the highest mountain range in Colombia. On its crystalline base rise individual volcanic peaks, among which Tolima rises to a height of 5215 m.

Even further east, beyond the deep valley of the Magdalena River, is the lower ridge of the Eastern Cordillera, which is composed of highly folded sedimentary rocks and is divided in the central part by extensive basin-like depressions. In one of them, at an altitude of 2600 m, is the capital of Colombia, Bogota.

About 8° N. w. The Eastern Cordillera is divided into two branches - the submeridial Sierra Perija and the Cordillera de Merida, extending to the northeast and reaching an altitude of 5000 m. On the middle massif located between them, a vast intermontane depression of Maracaibo was formed, occupied in the central part by the lake of the same name - lagoon. To the west of the Sierra Perija ridge stretches the swampy lowland of the lower Magdalena - Cauqui, corresponding to a young intermountain trough. Just off the coast of the Caribbean Sea rises the isolated massif of Sierra Neva da Santa Marta (Cristobal Colon - 5775m), which is a continuation of the anticlinorium of the Central Cordillera, separated from its main part by the Magdalena Valley trough. The young sediments that fill the Maracaibo and Magdalena-Cauca depressions contain rich oil and gas deposits.

From the platform side, the entire zone of the Northern Andes is accompanied by a young sub-Andean trough, also different
oil content.

In southern Colombia and Ecuador, the Andes narrow and consist of only two parts. The coastal Cordillera disappears, and in its place appears a hilly coastal plain. The Central and Eastern Cordilleras merge into one ridge.

Between two mountain ranges of Ecuador lies a depression with a strip of faults along which extinct and active volcanoes rise. The highest of them are the active Cotopaxi volcano (5897 m) and the extinct Chimborazo volcano (6310 m). Within this tectonic depression, at an altitude of 2700 m, the capital of Ecuador, Quito, is located.

Active volcanoes also rise above the Eastern Cordillera of Southern Colombia and Ecuador - these are Cayambe (5790 m), Antisana (5705 m), Tunnuragua (5033 m) and Sangay (5230 m). The regular snow-capped cones of these volcanoes represent one of the most striking features of the Ecuadorian Andes.

The Northern Andes are characterized by a clearly defined system of altitudinal zones. The lower mountains and coastal lowlands are humid and hot and have the highest average annual temperature in South America (+ 2°C). At the same time, there are almost no seasonal differences. In the lowlands of Maracaibo, the average August temperature is + 29°C, the average January temperature is +27°C. The air is saturated with moisture, precipitation falls almost all year, the annual amounts reach 2500-3000 mm, and on the Pacific coast - 5000-7000 mm.

The entire lower belt of mountains, called “hot land” by the local population, is unfavorable for human life. High and constant air humidity and sweltering heat have a relaxing effect on the human body. Vast swamps are breeding grounds various diseases. The entire lower mountain belt is occupied by tropical rainforest, which in appearance does not differ from the forests of the eastern part of the mainland. It consists of palm trees, ficus trees (among them are rubber plants, castilloa cocoa trees, bananas, etc. On the coast, the forest is replaced by mangroves, and in wetlands there are vast and often impenetrable reed swamps.

On the site of cleared tropical rainforests in many areas of the coast, sugar cane and bananas are grown - the main tropical crops of the northern regions of South America. In the oil-rich lowlands along the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, large areas of tropical forests have been cleared, and in their place have appeared the “forests” of countless oil rigs, numerous workers’ villages, and large cities.

Above the lower hot mountain belt is the temperate zone of the Northern Andes (Peggar Hetriaia), rising to an altitude of 2500-3000 m. This zone, like the lower one, is characterized by an even temperature variation throughout the year, but due to the altitude there are quite significant daily amplitudes temperature. There is no intense heat typical of the hot zone. The average annual temperature ranges from +15 to +20°C, the amount of precipitation and humidity is much less than in the lower zone. The amount of precipitation decreases especially strongly in closed high-mountain basins and valleys (no more than 1000 mm per year). The original vegetation cover of this belt is very different in composition and appearance from the forests of the lower belt. Palm trees disappear and tree ferns and bamboos predominate, cinchona (Species of StsHop), coca bush, whose leaves contain cocaine, and other species unknown in the forests of the “hot land” appear.

The temperate mountain zone is the most favorable for human life. Due to the uniformity and moderation of temperature, it is called the belt of eternal spring. A significant part of the population of Northern Hades lives within its borders; the largest cities are located there and agriculture is developed. Corn, tobacco and Colombia's most important crop, the coffee tree, are widespread.

The local population calls the next belt of mountains “cold land” (Pegga /g/a). Its upper limit lies at an altitude of about 3800 m. Within this zone, a uniform temperature is maintained, but it is even lower than in the temperate zone (only +10, +11 ° C). This belt is characterized by high-mountain hylea, consisting of low-growing and twisted trees and shrubs. The diversity of species, the abundance of epiphytic plants and lianas bring the high-mountain hylea closer to the lowland tropical forest.

The main representatives of the flora of this forest are evergreen oaks, heathers, myrtles, low-growing bamboos and tree ferns. Despite the high altitude, the cold belt of the Northern Andes is populated. Small settlements along the basins rise to an altitude of 3500 m. The population, mostly Indian, cultivates corn, wheat and potatoes.

The next altitudinal zone of the Northern Andes is alpine. It is known among the local population as “paramos”. It ends at the border of eternal snow at an altitude of about 4500 m. Within this belt the climate is harsh. With positive daytime temperatures in all seasons, there are severe night frosts, snow storms and snowfalls. There is little precipitation, but evaporation is very strong. The vegetation of Paramos is unique and has a pronounced xerophytic appearance. It consists of sparsely growing turf grasses, cushion-shaped, rosette-shaped or tall (up to 5 m), heavily pubescent asteraceae with bright inflorescences. On flat areas of the surface, large areas are occupied by moss swamps, and for steep slopes characterized by completely barren rocky spaces.

Above 4500 m in the Northern Andes, a belt of eternal snow and ice begins with a constantly negative temperature. Many Andean massifs have large alpine-type glaciers. They are most developed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marte, the Central and Western Cordillera of Colombia. The high peaks of the volcanoes Tolima, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi are covered with huge caps of snow and ice. There are also significant glaciers in the middle part of the Cordillera de Mérida range.

Central Andes

The Central Andes stretch for a huge distance from the state border between Ecuador and Peru in the north to 27° S. latitude. on South. This is the widest part of the mountain system, reaching a width of 700,800 km within Bolivia.

In the south, the middle part of the Andes is occupied by plateaus, which are accompanied on both sides by the ridges of the Eastern and Western Cordillera.

The Western Cordillera represents a high mountain chain with extinct and active volcanoes: Ojos del Salado (6880 m), Coropuna (6425 m), Huallagiri (6060 m), Misti (5821 m), etc. Within Bolivia, the Western Cordillera forms the main watershed of the Andes .

In Northern Chile, from the Pacific Ocean, a chain of the Coastal Cordillera appears, reaching an altitude of 600-1000 m. It is separated from the Western Cordillera by the Atacama tectonic depression. The coastal Cordillera breaks straight into the ocean, forming a straight rocky coast, very inconvenient for ships to anchor. Along the coast of Peru and Chile, rocky islands protrude from the ocean, where, as well as on the coastal cliffs, billions of Birds nest, depositing masses of guano - the most valuable natural fertilizer, widely used in these countries.

The Andean plateaus, called “punami” by the local population of Chile and Argentina, and “altiplano” by Bolivia, located between the Western and Eastern Cordillera, reach an altitude of 3000-4500 m. Their surface is cluttered with coarse clastic material or loose sand, and in the eastern part it is covered with strata of volcanic rocks. products. In some places there are depressions partially occupied by lakes. An example is the basin of Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 3800 m. Somewhat southeast of this lake at an altitude of 3700 m above sea level at the bottom of a deep gorge cut into the surface of the plateau, and on its slopes lies the main city of Bolivia - La Paz - the most the highest mountain capital in the world.

The surface of the plateaus is crossed in different directions by high ridges that exceed their average height by 1000-2000 m. Many of the peaks of the ridges are active volcanoes. Since the watershed runs along the Western Cordillera, the plateaus are crossed by rivers flowing to the east and forming deep valleys and wild gorges.

In its origin, the Pun-Altiplano zone corresponds to the middle massif, consisting of leveled folded structures of Paleozoic age, which experienced subsidence at the beginning of the Cenozoic and did not undergo such a strong uplift in the Neogene as the Eastern and Western Cordillera.

The High Eastern Cordillera has complex structure and forms the eastern edge of the Andes. Its western slope, facing the plateaus, is steep, while the eastern slope is gentle. Since the eastern slope of the Central Andes, in contrast to all other parts of the region, receives a significant amount of precipitation, it is characterized by deep erosional dissection.

Individual snowy peaks rise above the ridge of the Eastern Cordillera, which reaches an average height of about 4000 m. The highest of them are Ilyampu (6485 m) and Illimani (6462 m). There are no volcanoes in the Eastern Cordillera.

Throughout the Central Andes in Peru and Bolivia there are large deposits of non-ferrous, rare and radioactive metal ores. The Coastal and Western Cordilleras within Chile occupy one of the first places in the world in copper mining; in Atacama and on the Pacific coast there is the only deposit of natural nitrate in the world.

The Central Andes are dominated by desert and semi-desert landscapes. In the north, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls per year, with most of it falling in the summer. The highest average monthly temperature is +26°C, the lowest is +18°C. The vegetation has a sharply xerophytic appearance and consists of cacti, prickly pears, acacias and tough grasses.

It becomes much drier further south. Within the Atacama Desert and the adjacent section of the Pacific coast, less than 100 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in some places even less than 25 mm. At some points east of the Coastal Cordillera it never rains. In the coastal zone (up to an altitude of 400-800 m), the lack of rain is somewhat compensated by high relative air humidity (up to 80%), fogs and dew, which usually occur in winter. Some plants are adapted to subsist on this moisture.

The cold Peruvian Current moderates temperatures along the coast. The January average from north to south varies from +24 to + 19°C, and the July average from + 19 to +13°C.

Soils and vegetation in the Atacama are almost absent. Individual ephemeral plants that do not form a closed cover appear during the foggy season. Large areas are occupied by saline surfaces on which vegetation does not develop at all. The slopes of the Western Cordillera, facing the Pacific Ocean, are also very dry. Deserts rise here to a height of 1000 m in the north and up to 3000 m in the south. The mountain slopes are covered with sparsely standing cacti and prickly pears. The annual course of temperatures, precipitation within the Pacific desert and the relative humidity of the desert are relatively few oases. In the central part of the Pacific coast, natural oases exist along the valleys of small rivers starting from glaciers. Most of them are located on the coast of Northern Peru, where among the desert landscapes in areas irrigated and fertilized with guano, plantations of sugar cane, cotton and coffee trees grow green. The largest cities, including the capital of Peru - Lima, are located in oases on the coast.

The deserts of the Pacific coast merge with a belt of mountain semi-deserts known as dry punas. The dry puna extends to the southwestern part of the interior plateaus, to an altitude of 3000 to 4500 m in some. places going down and below.

Precipitation in dry Pune is less than 250 mm, the maximum occurs in summer. The continentality of the climate manifests itself in the course of temperature. The air is very warm during the day, but cold winds in the warmest time of the year can cause severe cooling. In winter there are frosts down to -20°C, but the average monthly temperature is positive. The average temperature of the warmest months is +14, +15°C. At all times of the year there is a large difference in temperature between day and night. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of rain and hail, but in winter there is also snowfall, although snow cover does not form.

The vegetation is very sparse. Dwarf shrubs predominate, among which are representatives called tola, which is why the entire landscape of dry puna is often called tola. Some cereals are mixed in with them, such as reed grass, feather grass and various lichens. There are also cacti. Saline areas are even poorer in plants. They grow mainly wormwood and ephedra.
In the east and north of the Central Andes, annual precipitation gradually increases, although other climate features remain the same. The exception is the area adjacent to Lake Titicaca. The huge water mass of the lake (area over 8300 km2, depth up to 304 m) has a very noticeable impact on the climatic conditions of the surrounding area. In the lakeside region, temperature fluctuations are not so sharp and the amount of precipitation is higher than in other parts of the plateau. Due to the fact that the amount of precipitation increases in the east to 800 mm, and in the north even up to 1000 mm, the vegetation becomes richer and more diverse, the mountain semi-desert turns into a mountain steppe, which the local population calls “puna”.

The vegetation cover of Puna is characterized by a variety of grasses, especially fescue, feather grass and reed grass. A very common type of feather grass, called “ichu” by the local population, forms sparsely planted hard tufts. In addition, various cushion-shaped shrubs grow in pune. In some places there are also isolated low-growing trees.

The Punes occupy vast territories in the Central Andes. In Peru and Bolivia, especially along the shores of Lake Titicaca and in the most humid valleys, before the arrival of the Spaniards they were inhabited by cultural Indian peoples who formed the Inca state. The ruins of ancient Inca buildings, paved with stone slabs roads and remains of irrigation systems. The ancient city of Cusco in Peru at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera was the capital of the Inca state.

The modern population of the interior plateaus of the Andes consists mainly of Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture and domesticate and breed llamas.

Agriculture is practiced at high altitudes. Potato plantings and crops of some cereals can be found up to an altitude of 3500-3700 m; quinoa is grown even higher, an annual plant from the goosefoot family, which produces a large harvest of small seeds that constitute the main food of the local population. Around large cities (La Paz, Cusco), the surface of the punas is turned into a “patchwork” landscape, where fields alternate with groves of eucalyptus trees brought by the Spaniards and thickets of gorse and other shrubs.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara people, who fish and make various products from the reeds that grow on the low shores of the lake.
Above 5000 m in the south and 6000 m in the north the temperature is negative throughout the year. Glaciation is insignificant due to the dry climate; only in the Eastern Cordillera, which receives more precipitation, there are large glaciers.

The landscapes of the Eastern Cordillera differ significantly from the landscapes of the rest of the Central Andes. Wet winds bring significant amounts of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean in the summer. Partially through through valleys, it penetrates the western slope of the Eastern Cordillera and adjacent parts of the plateaus, where abundant rainfall occurs. Therefore, the lower parts of the mountain slopes up to an altitude of 1000-1500 m are covered with dense tropical forests with palm trees and cinchona. Within this belt, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and various tropical fruits are grown in the valleys. Up to an altitude of 3000 m, low-growing evergreen mountain forests grow - dense thickets of bamboo and ferns with vines. Thickets of bushes and high mountain steppes rise higher. Indian villages nestle in through river valleys, surrounded by fields and groves of eucalyptus trees. And in one of the valleys belonging to the Amazon basin, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera, there are the ruins of an ancient Incan fortress, created during the period of fierce struggle with the Spanish conquerors - the famous Machu Picchu. Its territory has been turned into a museum-reserve.

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

In the subtropical zone between 27 and 42° S. within Chile and Argentina, the Andes taper and consist of only one mountain range, but reach their greatest height.

Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean stretches a strip of low plateau of the Coastal Cordillera, serving as a continuation of the Coastal Cordillera of the Central Andes. Its average height is 800 m, individual peaks rise up to 2000 m. Deep river valleys divide it into table plateaus that drop steeply to the Pacific Ocean. Behind. The coastal Cordillera is parallel to the tectonic depression of the Central, or Longitudinal, Valley of Chile. It is an orographic continuation of the Atacama depression, but is separated from it by transverse spurs of the Andes. Similar spurs of the main ridge divide the valley into a number of isolated depressions. The height of the valley floor in the north is about 700 m, in the south it decreases to 100-200 m. Isolated cones of ancient volcanoes rise above its hilly surface, reaching several hundred meters of relative height. The valley is the most populated region of Chile and is home to the country's capital, Santiago.

On the east, the Central Valley is bounded by the high chain of the Main Cordillera, along the ridge of which lies the border of Chile and Argentina. In this part of the Andes, they are composed of highly folded Mesozoic sediments and volcanic rocks and reach enormous heights and integrity of uplift. The highest peaks of the Andes - Aconcagua (6960 m), Mercedario (6770 m), active volcanoes Tupungato (6800 m), Milo (5223 m) - protrude above the wall of the main ridge. Above 4000 m, the mountains are covered with snow and ice, their slopes are almost vertical and inaccessible. The entire mountain range, including the Central Valley, is subject to seismic and volcanic phenomena. Particularly frequent and destructive earthquakes occur in Central Chile. A catastrophic earthquake struck Chile in 1960. Repeated tremors reached magnitude 12. The waves caused by the earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and hit the shores of Japan with enormous force.

In the coastal part of the Chilean Andes, the climate is subtropical, with dry summers and wet winters. The distribution area of ​​this climate covers the coast between 29 and 37° south. sh., the Central Valley and the lower parts of the western slopes of the Main Cordillera. In the north, a transition to semi-deserts is planned, and in the south, an increase in precipitation and the gradual disappearance of the summer drought period mark the transition to the conditions of an oceanic climate of temperate latitudes.

As you move away from the coast, the climate becomes more continental and drier than on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. In Valparaiso, the temperature of the coolest month is + 11 ° C, and the warmest is +17, + 18 ° C, seasonal temperature ranges are small. They are more noticeable in the Central Valley. In Santiago, the average temperature of the coldest month is +7, +8°С, and the warmest is +20°С. There is little precipitation, the amount increases from north to south and from east to west. In Santiago, about 350 mm falls, in Valdivia - 750 mm. Farming in these areas requires artificial irrigation. Towards the south, annual precipitation amounts quickly increase and the differences in their distribution between summer and winter almost disappear. On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera, precipitation increases, but on its eastern slope it again becomes very small.

The soil cover is very variegated. The most common are typical brown soils, characteristic of dry subtropical regions. In the Central Valley, dark-colored soils reminiscent of chernozems are developed.

Natural vegetation has been severely destroyed, since almost the entire population of the country lives in the central part of Chile, engaged mainly in agriculture. Therefore, most of the land suitable for plowing is occupied by crops of various crops. Natural vegetation is characterized by a predominance of thickets of evergreen shrubs, reminiscent of the maquis of Southern Europe or the chapparral of North America.

In the past, forests covered the slopes of the Andes up to an altitude of 2000-2500 m. On the dry eastern slopes, the upper boundary of the forest lies 200 m lower than on the wetter western ones. Now the forests have been destroyed and the slopes of the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera are bare. Woody vegetation is found mainly in the form of artificial plantings in populated areas and along the fields. On the conical volcanoes rising from the bottom of the valley within Santiago, you can see groves of eucalyptus, pines and araucarias, plane trees, beeches, and in the undergrowth - thickets of bright blooming geranium and gorse. These plantings combine local flora with species introduced from Europe.

Above 2500 m in the Andes there is a belt of mountain meadows, within which narrow strips of low-growing forests and shrubs extend along the valleys. The vegetation cover of mountain meadows includes species of those genera of plants that are also found in the alpine meadows of the Old World: buttercup, saxifrage, wood sorrel, primrose, etc. Some shrubs, such as currants and barberries, are also common. There are areas of peat bogs with typical bog flora. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures.

The cultivated vegetation is similar to the vegetation of the climate-appropriate regions of Europe and North America. Most subtropical crops were introduced to South America from the Mediterranean countries of Europe. These are grapevines, olive trees, citrus fruits and other fruit trees. The largest part of the plowed areas is occupied by wheat, and a much smaller part is occupied by corn. On the mountain slopes, peasants grow potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes and Bell pepper. In the most convenient areas where forests were destroyed, there are artificial tree plantations.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

In the extreme south, within the temperate zone, the Andes are lowered and fragmented. Coastal Cordillera south of 42°S. w. turns into thousands of mountainous islands in the Chilean archipelago. The longitudinal valley of Central Chile in the south descends and then disappears under the waters of the ocean. Its continuation is a system of bays and straits that separate the islands of the Chilean archipelago from the mainland. The main Cordillera is also greatly reduced. Within Southern Chile, its height rarely exceeds 3000 m, and in the extreme south it does not even reach 2000 m. Many fjords cut into the coast, cutting the western slope of the mountains into a number of isolated peninsular sections. Fjords are often continued by large glacial lakes, the basins of which cross the low ridge and, emerging on its eastern Argentine slope, make it easier to overcome the mountains. The entire area along the Pacific Ocean is very reminiscent of the Norwegian coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although the fjords of the Chilean coast are not as grandiose as those of Norway.

Glacial landforms are widespread in the Southern Andes. In addition to fjords and glacial lakes, you can find large cirques, valleys with a typical trough-shaped profile, hanging valleys, moraine ridges, which often serve as a dam for lakes, etc. Forms of ancient glaciation are combined with powerful modern glaciation and the development of glacial processes.

The climate of Southern Chile is humid, with slight differences in summer and winter temperatures, very unfavorable for people. The coast and western slopes of the mountains are constantly exposed to strong westerly winds, bringing huge amounts of precipitation. With an average amount of up to 2000-3000 mm, in some areas of the west coast up to 6000 mm of precipitation falls per year. On the eastern slope, leeward of the western air currents, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. Constant strong winds and rains occurring more than 200 days a year, low clouds, fogs and moderate temperatures throughout the year - characteristics climate of Southern Chile. On the coast itself and the islands, constant storms rage, bringing huge waves onto the shore.

With an average winter temperature of +4, +7°C, the average summer temperature does not exceed +15°C, and in the extreme south it drops to +10°C. Only on the eastern slope of the Andes do the amplitudes of fluctuations between the average summer and winter temperatures increase slightly. At high altitudes in the mountains, negative temperatures prevail throughout the year, at the most high peaks On the eastern slope, frosts last for a long time down to - 30°C. Due to these climate features, the snow line in the mountains lies very low: in the north of the Patagonian Andes at approximately 1500m, in the south - below 1000m. Modern glaciation occupies a very large area, especially at 48° S, where a thick ice cover covers an area of ​​over 20 thousand km2. This is the so-called Patagonian Ice Sheet. Powerful valley glaciers radiate from it to the west and east, the ends of which lie significantly below the snow line, sometimes near the ocean. Some glacial tongues on the eastern slope end in large lakes.

Glaciers and lakes feed a large number of rivers flowing into the Pacific and partially into the Atlantic Ocean. River valleys are deeply cut into the surface. In some cases they cross the Andes, and rivers starting on the eastern slope flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers are winding, full-flowing and stormy, their valleys usually consist of lake-like expansions, giving way to narrow rapids.
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with moisture-loving subantarctic forests, consisting of tall trees and shrubs, among which evergreen species predominate: at 42° S. w. there is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are common to the south. Due to their density, abundance of species, multi-layered nature, diversity of vines, mosses and lichens, they resemble forests of low latitudes. The soils under them are of the brown soil type, in the south - podzolic. There are many swamps in flat areas.

The main representatives of the flora of the forests of the Southern Andes are species of evergreen and deciduous southern beech, magnolias, giant conifers, bamboos and tree ferns. Many plants bloom with beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summer. The branches and trunks of trees are entangled with vines and covered with a lush moss and lichen cover. Mosses and lichens, along with leaf litter, cover the soil surface.

As you rise into the mountains, forests become thinner and their species composition becomes poorer. In the extreme south, forests are gradually replaced by tundra-type vegetation.
On the eastern slope of the mountains, facing the Patagonian Plateau, precipitation falls significantly less than in the west.

The forests there are less dense and poorer in species composition than on the Pacific coast. The main forest-forming species of these forests are beeches, with some double beeches mixed in. At the foot of the mountains, the forests turn into dry steppes and shrubs of the Patagonian Plateau.

The forests of the Southern Andes contain huge reserves of high-grade timber. However, to date they have been used unevenly. The Araucaria forests were the most heavily deforested. In the southern, least accessible areas, there are still significant tracts of forests, almost untouched by humans.

Tierra del Fuego.

Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago of dozens of large and small islands located off the southern coast of South America between 53 and 55° S. w. and belonging to Chile and Argentina. The islands are separated from the mainland and from one another by narrow winding straits. The easternmost and largest island is called Tierra del Fuego or Big Island.

Geologically and geomorphologically, the archipelago serves as a continuation of the Andes and the Patagonian Plateau. The coasts of the western islands are rocky and deeply indented by fjords, while the eastern ones are flat and weakly dissected.

The entire western part of the archipelago is occupied by mountains up to 2400 m high. In the relief of the mountains, ancient and modern glacial forms in the form of piles of boulders, trough valleys, “ram’s foreheads” and dammed moraine lakes play an important role. Mountain ranges dissected by glaciers rise from the ocean itself, narrow winding fjords cut into their slopes. In the eastern part of the largest island lies a vast plain.

The climate of Tierra del Fuego is very humid, except in the extreme east. The archipelago is constantly exposed to harsh and humid southwesterly winds. Precipitation in the west falls up to 3000 mm per year, with drizzle prevailing, which occurs 300-330 days a year. In the east, precipitation decreases sharply.

The temperature is low throughout the year, and its fluctuations between seasons are insignificant. We can say that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago is close to the tundra in summer temperatures, and subtropical in winter temperatures.
The climatic conditions of Tierra del Fuego are favorable for the development of glaciation. The snow line in the west lies at an altitude of 500 m, and glaciers fall directly into the ocean, forming icebergs. The mountain ranges are covered with ice, and only a few sharp peaks rise above its cover.

In the narrow coastal strip, mainly in the western part of the archipelago, forests of evergreen and deciduous trees are common. Particularly characteristic are southern beeches, canelo, magnolia, blooming with white fragrant flowers, and some conifers. The upper border of forest vegetation and the snow border almost merge with each other. In places above 500 m, and sometimes near the sea (in the east), forests give way to sparse subantarctic mountain meadows without flowering plants and peat bogs. In areas where constant strong winds blow, sparse and low, twisted trees and shrubs with “flag-shaped” crowns, inclined in the direction of the prevailing winds, grow in groups.

The fauna of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago and the Southern Andes is approximately the same and quite unique. Along with the guanaco, the blue fox, the fox-like or Magellanic dog, and many rodents are common there. The endemic rodent tuco-tuco, living underground, is characteristic. There are numerous birds: parrots, hummingbirds.
The most common domestic animal is sheep. Sheep farming is the main occupation of the population.

Environmental problems in the Andes zone.

Careless use of natural resources.

Among the mineral resources mined in the Andes, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, antimony, lead and zinc) of igneous and metamorphic origin are distinguished. Platinum, gold, and precious stones are also mined there. In the eastern highlands, large deposits of zirconium, beryl, bismuth, titanium, uranium, and nickel are associated with the outcropping of igneous rocks; deposits of iron and manganese – with outcrops of metamorphic rocks; deposits of bauxite containing aluminum - with weathering crust. Oil fields, natural gas and coal are confined to platform troughs, intermountain and foothill depressions. In a desert climate, during the biochemical decomposition of seabird droppings, deposits of Chilean saltpeter were formed.

Also, forest resources are being used at a fairly rapid pace, but at such a pace that they are no longer renewed. The three main problems in the field of forest conservation are: deforestation for pastures and agricultural land; illegal deforestation by local people to sell wood or to use it as fuel for heating houses, due to economic reasons.

Countries located in the Andean zone faced a number of environmental problems in coastal and marine areas. First of all, these are large volumes of fish catch, which is actually not controlled in any way, which creates a threat of extinction of many species of fish and marine animals, given that the catch is constantly increasing. The development of ports and transport has led to serious pollution of coastal areas, where landfills and warehouses for equipment and fuel for ships are often located. But the most serious damage comes from the release of sewage waste and industrial waste into the sea, which negatively affects coastal areas, flora and fauna.

It must be said that it is quite difficult to obtain sufficiently reliable information regarding greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, since statistical data on this issue is either absent or does not appear to be entirely justified. However, it is reliably known that the cause of air pollution in 50% of cases is industrial production and electricity generation. In addition, there is a trend away from promising direction in the use of renewable energy in favor of fuel combustion, both in power generation and in the transport sector. The largest share of air pollution in South America and the Andes in particular comes from thermal power plants and steel and iron factories, while pollution from transport accounts for 33% of all emissions.

The most active industrial activity took place in the pampa, an area of ​​vast green steppes. There are mines, oil wells, smelters and oil refining industries here, which significantly pollute the surrounding areas. Petroleum refineries in particular damage water and underground sources, contaminating them with heavy metals such as mercury and lead and other chemicals. Oil refining activities in Salta have led to soil erosion, deterioration of water quality, negatively affecting Agriculture regions. The southern territories of Patagonia suffered significantly from mining activity in mountainous areas, which negatively affected the flora and fauna of the area, which in turn negatively affected tourism, which is one of the most important sources of income for local budgets.

Since ancient times, the states of South America were largely agricultural countries. Therefore, soil degradation is a serious economic problem. Soil deterioration is caused by erosion, pollution due to improper use of fertilizers, deforestation and poor management of agricultural land. For example, the production of soybeans for export has forced the Argentine Ministry of Agriculture to expand the use of new technologies, which has led to pesticide contamination of a large area in the north of the country. Improper use of pastures has led to desertification of land in the Argentine steppes, where 35% of fertile land has been lost. Poor land distribution and economic instability lead to overuse of land for quick profits, a pattern seen throughout the Andes. Unless appropriate measures are taken to protect land resources, soil degradation will continue and countries will face serious agricultural difficulties.

The Andes region is rich in species, but many animals and birds are under threat due to the spread of agriculture and human activity in coastal areas. Thus, more than 50% of birds and mammals are threatened with extinction. Although many countries use a large number of nature reserves, many natural areas are not sufficiently assessed for risk. Moreover, many protected areas are such only on paper and are practically not protected in any way.

Possible ways out of the problem.

The main environmental problems of the Andes are:

• soil and coastal degradation
• illegal deforestation and desertification of lands
• destruction of biological species
• pollution groundwater and atmosphere
• Problems with waste processing and heavy metal pollution

The main task of governments Latin America today is to improve the economic situation in their countries in order to cope with environmental problems. The first priority is to eliminate environmental problems in urban areas, where more than 1/3 of the countries' population lives. Improving the sanitary situation, solving transport problems and problems with poverty and unemployment - these are the areas in which the authorities need to act. Preserving biological diversity is the second most important task.

Gradually, Latin America is beginning to recognize the need to protect its natural resources. But the further implementation of the government program on protection issues environment possible only after the economic situation in the countries improves.

However, we must not forget that the forests located in Latin America, especially in the Amazon basin, are, and have long been recognized, the lungs of our planet, and how forests are cut down and burned are not only to blame for the poor countries of Latin America, but the rich countries, cold-bloodedly pumping out the depths of these countries are natural resources, not caring about the future, living according to the principle: “After us, even a flood.”

Andes, Andean Cordillera(Spanish) Andes; Cordillera de los Andes ) - the longest (9000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Aconcagua, 6962 m) mountain systems on Earth, bordering all of South America from the north and west; southern part of the Cordillera. In some places, the Andes reach a width of over 500 km (the greatest width - up to 750 km - in the Central Andes, between 18° and 20° S). The average altitude is about 4000 m.

The Andes are a major interoceanic divide; To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin (the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, Magdalena River and Patagonia River originate in the Andes), to the west - the Pacific Ocean basin (mostly short ones).

The Andes serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and to the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. Based on the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretch across the territories of seven South American countries - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

History of the name

According to the Italian historian Giovanni Anello Oliva (g.), initially by European conquerors “ Andes or Cordilleras" ("Andes, o cordilleras") was called the eastern ridge, while the western one was called " Sierra"("sierra").

Geological structure and relief

The Andes are reborn mountains, erected by new uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordilleran) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest systems of alpine folding on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The beginning of the formation of the Andes dates back to Jurassic time. The Andean mountain system is characterized by troughs formed in the Triassic, subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the Coastal Cordillera of Peru are granitoid intrusions of Cretaceous age. Intermountain and regional troughs (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) were formed in Paleogene and Neogene times. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone runs along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American plate, which contributes to the development of mountain building processes. The southernmost part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores of mainly non-ferrous metals (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, lead, molybdenum, zinc, arsenic, antimony, etc.); the deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; There are large copper deposits on the territory of Chile. There is oil and gas in the foredeep and foothill troughs (in the foothills of the Andes within Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina), and bauxite in the weathering crusts. The Andes also contain deposits of iron (in Bolivia), sodium nitrate (in Chile), gold, platinum and emeralds (in Colombia).

The Andes consist primarily of meridional parallel ridges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altiplano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mountain system is generally 200-300 km.

Orography

Northern Andes

The main system of the Andes (Andean Cordillera) consists of parallel ridges stretching in the meridional direction, separated by internal plateaus or depressions. Only the Caribbean Andes, located within Venezuela and belonging to the Northern Andes, stretch sublatitudinally along the coast of the Caribbean Sea. The northern Andes also include the Ecuadorian Andes (in Ecuador) and the Northwestern Andes (in western Venezuela and Colombia). The highest ridges of the Northern Andes have small modern glaciers, and eternal snow on the volcanic cones. The islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curacao in the Caribbean Sea represent the peaks of the extension of the Northern Andes that descend into the sea.

In the Northwestern Andes, fan-shaped diverging north of 12° N. sh., there are three main Cordilleras - Eastern, Central and Western. All of them are high, steeply sloped and have a folded blocky structure. They are characterized by faults, uplifts and subsidences of modern times. The main Cordilleras are separated by large depressions - the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca-Patia rivers.

The Eastern Cordillera has its highest altitude in its northeastern part (Mount Ritakuva, 5493 m); in the center of the Eastern Cordillera - an ancient lake plateau (predominant heights - 2.5 - 2.7 thousand m); The Eastern Cordillera is generally characterized by large planation surfaces. In the highlands there are glaciers. In the north, the Eastern Cordillera is continued by the Cordillera de Merida ranges ( highest point- Mount Bolivar, 5007 m) and Sierra de Perija (reaches a height of 3,540 m); Between these ranges, in a vast low-lying depression, lies Lake Maracaibo. In the far north there is the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta horst massif with altitudes up to 5800 m (Mount Cristobal Colon)

The Magdalena River Valley separates the Eastern Cordillera from the Central Cordillera, which is relatively narrow and high; in the Central Cordillera (especially in its southern part) there are many volcanoes (Hila, 5750 m; Ruiz, 5400 m; etc.), some of which are active (Kumbal, 4890 m). To the north, the Central Cordillera decreases somewhat and forms the Antioquia massif, strongly dissected by river valleys. The Western Cordillera, separated from the Central Valley by the Cauca River, has lower altitudes (up to 4200 m); in the south of the Western Cordillera - volcanism. Further to the west is the low (up to 1810 m) Serrania de Baudo ridge, which turns into the mountains of Panama in the north. To the north and west of the Northwestern Andes are the Caribbean and Pacific alluvial lowlands.

As part of the Equatorial (Ecuadorian) Andes, reaching up to 4° S, there are two Cordilleras (Western and Eastern), separated by depressions 2500-2700 m high. Along the faults that limit these depressions (depressions) there is one of the highest volcanic volcanoes in the world chains (the highest volcanoes are Chimborazo, 6267 m, Cotopaxi, 5897 m). These volcanoes, as well as those of Colombia, form the first volcanic region of the Andes.

Central Andes

In the Central Andes (up to 28° S) the Peruvian Andes (extending south to 14°30 S) and the Central Andes proper are distinguished. In the Peruvian Andes, as a result of recent uplifts and intensive incision of rivers (the largest of which - Marañon, Ucayali and Huallaga - belong to the upper Amazon system), parallel ridges (Eastern, Central and Western Cordillera) and a system of deep longitudinal and transverse canyons were formed, dismembering the ancient alignment surface . The peaks of the Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes exceed 6000 m (the highest point is Mount Huascaran, 6768 m); in the Cordillera Blanca - modern glaciation. Alpine landforms are also developed on the blocky ridges of the Cordillera Vilcanota, Cordillera de Vilcabamba, and Cordillera de Carabaya.

To the south is the widest part of the Andes - the Central Andean Highlands (width up to 750 km), where arid geomorphological processes predominate; A significant part of the highland is occupied by the Puna plateau with altitudes of 3.7 - 4.1 thousand m. Puna is characterized by drainage basins (“bolsons”) occupied by lakes (Titicaca, Poopo, etc.) and salt marshes (Atacama, Coipasa, Uyuni, etc. .). East of Puna is the Cordillera Real (Ankouma Peak, 6550 m) with thick modern glaciation; between the Altiplano plateau and the Cordillera Real, at an altitude of 3700 m, is the city of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, the highest in the world. To the east of the Cordillera Real are the sub-Andean folded ridges of the Eastern Cordillera, reaching up to 23° S. latitude. The southern continuation of the Cordillera Real is the Cordillera Central, as well as several blocky massifs (the highest point is Mount El Libertador, 6720 m). From the west, Puna is framed by the Western Cordillera with intrusive peaks and numerous volcanic peaks (Sajama, 6780 m; Llullaillaco, 6723 m; San Pedro, 6159 m; Misti, 5821 m; etc.), included in the second volcanic region of the Andes. South of 19° S. the western slopes of the Western Cordillera face the tectonic depression of the Longitudinal Valley, occupied in the south by the Atacama Desert. Behind the Longitudinal Valley is the low (up to 1500 m) intrusive Coastal Cordillera, which is characterized by arid sculptural landforms.

In Puna and in the western part of the Central Andes there is a very high snow line (in places above 6,500 m), so snow is recorded only on the highest volcanic cones, and glaciers are found only in the Ojos del Salado massif (up to 6,880 m in height).

Southern Andes

The Andes near the border of Argentina and Chile.

In the Southern Andes, extending south of 28° S, two parts are distinguished - northern (Chilean-Argentine or Subtropical Andes) and southern (Patagonian Andes). In the Chilean-Argentine Andes, narrowing to the south and reaching 39°41 S, a three-member structure is clearly expressed - the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley and the Main Cordillera; within the latter, in the Cordillera Frontal, there is the highest peak of the Andes, Mount Aconcagua (6960 m), as well as the large peaks of Tupungato (6800 m), Mercedario (6770 m). The snow line here is very high (at 32°40 S - 6000 m). To the east of the Cordillera Frontal are the ancient Precordilleras.

South of 33° S. (and up to 52° S) is the third volcanic region of the Andes, where there are many active (mainly in the Main Cordillera and to the west of it) and extinct volcanoes (Tupungato, Maipa, Llymo, etc.)

When moving south, the snow line gradually decreases and at 51° S. latitude. reaches 1460 m. High ridges acquire features of the Alpine type, the area of ​​modern glaciation increases, and numerous glacial lakes. South of 40° S. The Patagonian Andes begin with lower ridges than in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (the highest point is Mount San Valentin - 4058 m) and active volcanism in the north. About 52° S the strongly dissected Coastal Cordillera plunges into the ocean, and its peaks form a chain of rocky islands and archipelagos; The longitudinal valley turns into a system of straits reaching the western part of the Strait of Magellan. In the area of ​​the Strait of Magellan, the Andes (called the Andes of Tierra del Fuego) sharply deviate to the east. In the Patagonian Andes, the height of the snow line barely exceeds 1500 m (in the extreme south it is 300-700 m, and from 46°30 S latitude glaciers descend to ocean level), glacial landforms predominate (at 48° S latitude - powerful Patagonian ice sheet) with an area of ​​over 20 thousand km², from where many kilometers of glacial tongues descend to the west and east); some of the valley glaciers on the eastern slopes end in large lakes. Along the coasts, heavily indented by fjords, young volcanic cones rise (Corcovado and others). The Andes of Tierra del Fuego are relatively low (up to 2469 m).

Climate

Northern Andes

The northern part of the Andes belongs to the subequatorial belt of the northern hemisphere; here, as in the subequatorial zone of the southern hemisphere, there is an alternation of wet and dry seasons; Precipitation falls from May to November, but in the most northern regions the wet season is shorter. The eastern slopes are moistened much more than the western ones; Precipitation (up to 1000 mm per year) falls mainly in summer. In the Caribbean Andes, located on the border of the tropical and subequatorial zones, tropical air dominates throughout the year; there is little rainfall (often less than 500 mm per year); The rivers are short with characteristic summer floods.

In the equatorial belt, seasonal variations are practically absent; Thus, in the capital of Ecuador, Quito, the change in average monthly temperatures over the year is only 0.4 °C. Precipitation is abundant (up to 10,000 mm per year, although usually 2500-7000 mm per year) and is distributed more evenly along the slopes than in the subequatorial belt. Altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed. In the lower part of the mountains there is a hot and humid climate, precipitation falls almost daily; in the depressions there are numerous swamps. With altitude, the amount of precipitation decreases, but the thickness of the snow cover increases. Up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m, temperatures rarely drop below 15 °C; seasonal temperature fluctuations are insignificant. There are already large daily temperature fluctuations here (up to 20 °C), the weather can change dramatically during the day. At altitudes of 3500-3800 m, daily temperatures fluctuate around 10 °C. Higher up there is a harsh climate with frequent snowstorms and snowfalls; Daytime temperatures are positive, but there are severe frosts at night. The climate is dry, as there is little precipitation due to high evaporation. Above 4500 m there is eternal snow.

Central Andes

Between 5° and 28° S. There is a pronounced asymmetry in the distribution of precipitation along the slopes: the western slopes are moistened much less than the eastern ones. To the west of the Main Cordillera there is a desert tropical climate (the formation of which is greatly facilitated by the cold Peruvian Current), and there are very few rivers. If in the northern part of the Central Andes 200-250 mm of precipitation falls per year, then to the south their amount decreases and in some places does not exceed 50 mm per year. This part of the Andes is home to the Atacama, the driest desert on earth. Deserts rise in places up to 3000 m above sea level. The few oases are located mainly in the valleys of small rivers fed by the waters of mountain glaciers. The average January temperature in coastal areas ranges from 24 °C in the north to 19 °C in the south, and the average July temperature ranges from 19 °C in the north to 13 °C in the south. Above 3000 m, in dry puna, there is also little precipitation (rarely more than 250 mm per year); There are arrivals of cold winds when the temperature can drop to −20 °C. The average July temperature does not exceed 15 °C.

At low altitudes, with very little rain, there is significant (up to 80%) air humidity, which is why fog and dew are frequent. The Altiplano and Puna plateaus have a very harsh climate, with average annual temperatures not exceeding 10 °C. Large lake Titicaca has a softening effect on the climate of the surrounding areas - in the lakeside areas, temperature fluctuations are not as significant as in other parts of the plateau. To the east of the Main Cordillera there is a large amount of precipitation (3000 - 6000 mm per year) (brought mainly in the summer by easterly winds), a dense river network. Through the valleys air masses from the Atlantic Ocean they cross the Eastern Cordillera, moistening its western slope. Above 6000 m in the north and 5000 m in the south - negative average annual temperatures; Due to the dry climate, there are few glaciers.

Southern Andes

In the Chilean-Argentine Andes the climate is subtropical, and the humidification of the western slopes - due to winter cyclones - is greater than in the subequatorial zone; When moving south, annual precipitation amounts on the western slopes increase rapidly. Summer is dry, winter is wet. As you move away from the ocean, the climate becomes more continental and seasonal temperature fluctuations increase. In the city of Santiago, located in the Longitudinal Valley, the average temperature of the warmest month is 20 °C, the coldest month is 7-8 °C; There is little precipitation in Santiago, 350 mm per year (to the south, in Valdivia, there is more precipitation - 750 mm per year). On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera there is more precipitation than in the Longitudinal Valley (but less than on the Pacific coast).

When moving south, the subtropical climate of the western slopes smoothly transforms into the oceanic climate of temperate latitudes: annual precipitation amounts increase, and differences in moisture between seasons decrease. Strong westerly winds bring large amounts of precipitation to the coast (up to 6000 mm per year, although usually 2000-3000 mm). More than 200 days a year go heavy rains, thick fogs often fall on the coast, and the sea is constantly stormy; the climate is unfavorable for living. The eastern slopes (between 28° and 38° S) are drier than the western ones (and only in the temperate zone, south of 37° S, due to the influence of westerly winds, their moisture increases, although they remain less humid compared to Western ones). The average temperature of the warmest month on the western slopes is only 10-15 °C (the coldest month is 3-7 °C)

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, Tierra del Fuego, there is a very humid climate, which is formed by strong, humid westerly and southwesterly winds; Precipitation (up to 3000 mm) falls mainly in the form of drizzle (which occurs most days of the year). Only in the easternmost part of the archipelago is there much less precipitation. Temperatures are low throughout the year (with very little temperature variation between seasons).

Vegetation and soils

The soil and vegetation cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains and the significant difference in moisture content between the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonation in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three altitudinal zones - Tierra Caliente, Tierra Fria and Tierra Elada.

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38° S. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are a lot of mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42° S - mixed forests (in the region of 42° S there is an array of araucaria forests). Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes there are mainly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes there is tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, forests (deciduous and evergreen trees- for example, southern beech and canelos) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; Above the forest line, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in some places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peatlands are common.

A person is born, lives, ages, dies, and granite mountains remain the same at all times.

Their age is much longer than ours. They are thousands of thousands of years old and they remember and store inner strength who gave them life on earth and sky. The power of the stone is in its constancy, in its will, resisting the icy winds and the fury of the sun, the inexorability of time. And, probably, the most perfect of them are diamonds, which have learned this better than others.

Mountain. Not only humans, animals and plants are alive, but also stones, rivers, clouds, stars and the Earth itself. Everything in nature is permeated with a single breath or force (yin - yang). Where this breath is most powerful, - Mountains rise on the surface of the planet.

This magical breath in Ancient China was called shanling - "the miraculous influence of the mountains" and they said that it reflects the living and active essence of mountain formations. Shanling fills the mountain peaks and turns them into Dragons (yang energy, light, active, rushing upward into mountain peaks) and Tigers (yin energy, dark, calm, descending). Or they simply talked about the Dragon, characterizing with this the very essence of the mountains.

“The dragon is those hills in the area from where water flows originate and through which the wind makes its way.”

“The powers of the mountains extend high and wide. The ability to prance on the clouds is from the mountains, And the ability to keep up with the wind is the same from the mountains.”

The Andes range from the equator to Antarctica and are a major interoceanic divide; To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin (the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River originate in the Andes), to the west - the Pacific Ocean basin (mostly short ones).

The Andes serve as the most important mountains in South America climate barrier , isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The beginning of the formation of the Andes dates back to Jurassic time. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone runs along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American plate, which contributes to the development of mountain building processes. The southernmost part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate.

The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other.

This mountain system has a complex structure - p about the nature of the relief and other natural differences. From south to north, three segments of the Andes can be distinguished:

Southern Andes

The Southern Andes or Subtropical Andes are divided into two parts - northern (Chilean-Argentine Andes) and southern (Patagonian Andes).

In the Chilean-Argentine Andes, a three-membered structure is clearly expressed - the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley and the Main Cordillera.

The coastal Cordillera is strongly dissected and plunges into the ocean, its peaks form a chain of rocky islands and archipelagos.

In the Patagonian Andes, the height of the snow line is 300-700 m. Glacial ice prevails here. landform, called the powerful Patagonian ice sheet (with an area of ​​over 20 thousand km²). Along the coasts, heavily indented by fjords, young volcanic cones rise (Corcovado and others).

The southern Andes have rich vegetation.On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes there are subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen. The forests contain a lot of mosses, lichens and lianas, and there is an array of araucaria forests. Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow.The subtropical Chilean Andes are dominated by evergreen shrubs.

Central Andes

The Central Andes have a different structure. The Central Andes are divided into the Peruvian Andes and the Central Andes proper. In the Peruvian Andes, as a result of recent uplifts and intensive incision of rivers (the largest of which - Marañon, Ucayali and Huallaga - belong to the upper Amazon system), parallel ridges (Eastern, Central and Western Cordillera) and a system of deep longitudinal and transverse canyons were formed, dismembering the ancient alignment surface . The peaks of the Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes exceed 6000 m (the highest point is Mount Huascaran, 6768 m); in the Cordillera Blanca - modern glaciation.

To the south, in the Central Andes, the Western Cordillera stretches along the Pacific coast. Here the mountain system reaches its greatest width (up to 750 km) - the Central Andian Highlands. It is adjoined to the east by the huge elevated middle massif of the Puna Altiplano. It forms a plateau with altitudes up to 4 km. There are drainage basins of large lakes here. Titicaca and Poopo, salt marshes (Atacama, Coipasa, Uyuni, etc.) and scattered chains of young volcanoes. From the west, Puna is framed by the Western Cordillera with intrusive peaks and numerous volcanic peaks (Sajama, 6780 m; Llullaillaco, 6723 m; San Pedro, 6159 m; Misti, 5821 m; etc.).

To the west of the Main Cordillera there is a desert tropical climate, the formation of which is greatly facilitated by the cold Peruvian Current. There are very few rivers here. This part of the Andes is home to the Atacama, the driest desert on earth. Deserts rise in places up to 3000 m above sea level. The few oases are located mainly in the valleys of small rivers fed by the waters of mountain glaciers. At low altitudes, with very little rain, there is significant (up to 80%) air humidity, which is why fog and dew are frequent. The Altiplano and Puna plateaus have a very harsh climate, with average annual temperatures not exceeding 10 °C. The large Lake Titicaca has a softening effect on the climate of the surrounding areas - in the lakeside areas, temperature fluctuations are not as significant as in other parts of the plateau. To the east of the Main Cordillera there is a large (3000 - 6000 mm per year) amount of precipitation (brought mainly in the summer by easterly winds), a dense river network. Along the valleys, air masses from the Atlantic Ocean cross the Eastern Cordillera, moistening its western slope. Above 6000 m in the north and 5000 m in the south - negative average annual temperatures; Due to the dry climate, there are few glaciers.

Northern Andes

Altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed. The lower part of the mountains has a hot and humid climate, with precipitation falling almost daily; in the depressions there are numerous swamps. With altitude, the amount of precipitation decreases, but the thickness of the snow cover increases. Higher up there is a harsh climate with frequent snowstorms and snowfalls; Daytime temperatures are positive, but there are severe frosts at night. Above 4500 m there is eternal snow.

The northern Andes also include the Ecuadorian Andes (in Ecuador) and the Northwestern Andes (in western Venezuela and Colombia). The highest ridges of the Northern Andes have small modern glaciers, and eternal snow on the volcanic cones. The islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curacao in the Caribbean Sea represent the peaks of the extension of the Northern Andes that descend into the sea.

There are three main Cordilleras in the Northwestern Andes - Eastern, Central and Western. All of them are high, steeply sloped and have a folded blocky structure. They are characterized by faults, uplifts and subsidences of modern times.

The Equatorial (Ecuadorian) Andes include two Cordilleras (Western and Eastern), separated by depressions 2500-2700 m high. Along the faults that limit these depressions (depressions) there is one of the highest volcanic chains in the world (the highest volcanoes are Chimborazo, 6267 m, Cotopaxi, 5897 m). These volcanoes, as well as those of Colombia, form the first volcanic region of the Andes.

The mountains reach out to the sky and the stars, reaching out with all their ancient and eternally youthful strength of their fiery hearts. And the sky, stars and planets respond to them in response.

Both believers and atheists rise to the top, overcoming incredible difficulties and often risking their lives.

What are we looking for where there seems to be nothing but cold, stone, ice and hurricane winds? Or maybe what we are looking for, the tests that we arrange, are in themselves necessary for us in order to see, at least feel, our own Soul, the divine in ourselves?

By sometimes making extraordinary efforts, we find out who we really are. And the more we have to endure, the purer and more transparent we become. And we cry and laugh at the top, feeling the amazing unity of us and the ocean of mountains around us. Unity with each other, with the mountains, with the sky, with the whole earth, and maybe with God. And the genius guardians of the mountains, invisible to us, smile because they know that we will return.

The Andes are a major interoceanic divide. To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon itself and many of its major tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Paraná, Magdalena River and Patagonian River, originate in the Andes. To the west of the Andes flow mostly short rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean basin.

The Andes also serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and to the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones:

• equatorial,
• subequatorial,
• tropical,
• subtropical,
• moderate.

They are distinguished by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ from each other. Based on the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretch across the territories of 7 countries in South America:

• Venezuela,
• Colombia,
• Ecuador,
• Peru,
• Bolivia,
• Chile,
• Argentina.

Vegetation and soils

The soil and vegetation cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains and the significant difference in moisture content between the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonation in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three altitudinal zones - Tierra Caliente, Tierra Fria and Tierra Elada.

The Andes of Venezuela are home to deciduous forests and shrubs on montane red soils.

The lower parts of the windward slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with montane moist equatorial and tropical forests on lateritic soils (montane hylaea), as well as mixed forests of evergreen and deciduous species. The appearance of equatorial forests differs little from the appearance of these forests in the flat part of the continent; Characterized by various palm trees, ficuses, bananas, cocoa trees, etc.

Higher (up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m) the nature of the vegetation changes; typical are bamboos, tree ferns, coca bush (which is a source of cocaine), and cinchona.

Between 3000 m and 3800 m - high-mountain hylea with low-growing trees and shrubs; Epiphytes and lianas are widespread, bamboos, tree ferns, evergreen oaks, myrtaceae, and heathers are typical.

Higher up there is predominantly xerophytic vegetation, paramos, with numerous Asteraceae; moss swamps on flat areas and lifeless rocky areas on steep slopes.

Above 4500 m there is a belt of eternal snow and ice.

To the south, in the subtropical Chilean Andes - evergreen shrubs on brown soils.

In the Longitudinal Valley there are soils whose composition resembles chernozems.

Vegetation of the high mountain plateaus: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows of paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Puna - dry high-mountain tropical steppes of the halka, in the west of Puna and throughout the Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation (in the Atacama Desert - succulent vegetation and cacti). Many surfaces are saline, which prevents the development of vegetation; In such areas, mainly wormwood and ephedra are found.

Above 3000 m (up to about 4500 m) there is semi-desert vegetation called dry puna; Dwarf shrubs (tholoi), grasses (feather grass, reed grass), lichens, and cacti grow.

To the east of the Main Cordillera, where there is more precipitation, there is steppe vegetation (puna) with numerous grasses (fescue, feather grass, reed grass) and cushion-shaped shrubs.

On the humid slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, tropical forests (palm trees, cinchona) rise to 1500 m, low-growing evergreen forests with a predominance of bamboo, ferns, and lianas reach 3000 m; at higher altitudes there are high-mountain steppes.

A typical inhabitant of the Andean highlands is polylepis, a plant of the Rosaceae family, common in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Chile; these trees are also found at an altitude of 4500 m.

In central Chile the forests have been largely cleared; Once upon a time, forests rose along the Main Cordillera to altitudes of 2500-3000 m (higher up were mountain meadows with alpine grasses and shrubs, as well as rare peat bogs), but now the mountain slopes are practically bare. Nowadays, forests are found only in the form of individual groves (pines, araucarias, eucalyptus, beeches and plane trees, with gorse and geranium in the undergrowth).

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38° S. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are a lot of mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42° S - mixed forests (in the region of 42° S there is an array of araucaria forests). Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes there are mainly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes there is tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, Tierra del Fuego, forests (of deciduous and evergreen trees - such as southern beech and canelo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; Above the forest line, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in some places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peatlands are common.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other valuable plants.

Animal world

The fauna of the northern Andes is part of the Brazilian zoogeographic region and is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains.

The fauna of the Andes south of 5° south latitude belongs to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion. The Andean fauna in general is characterized by an abundance of endemic genera and species.

The Andes are inhabited by llamas and alpacas (representatives of these two species are used by the local population for wool and meat, and also as pack animals), prehensile-tailed monkeys, relict spectacled bear, pudú and gaemal deer (which are endemic to the Andes), vicuña, guanaco, Azar's fox , sloths, chinchillas, opossums, anteaters, degu rodents.

In the south - the blue fox, the Magellanic dog, the endemic rodent tuco-tuco, etc. There are many birds, among them hummingbirds, which are also found at altitudes above 4000 m, but are especially numerous and diverse in the “foggy forests” (tropical rainforests of Colombia, Ecuador , Peru, Bolivia and the extreme north-west of Argentina, located in the fog condensation zone); endemic condor, rising to a height of up to 7 thousand m; and others. Some species (such as chinchillas, which were intensively exterminated in the 19th - early 20th centuries for the sake of their skins; wingless grebes and the Titicaca whistler, found only near Lake Titicaca; etc.) are under threat of extinction.

A special feature of the Andes is the large species diversity of amphibians (over 900 species). Also in the Andes there are about 600 species of mammals (13% are endemic), over 1,700 species of birds (of which 33.6% are endemic) and about 400 species of freshwater fish (34.5% are endemic).

Ecology

One of the main environmental problems of the Andes is the deforestation, which is no longer renewed; The tropical rainforests of Colombia, which are being intensively reduced to plantations of cinchona, coffee, and rubber, have been particularly hard hit.

Having developed agriculture, Andean countries are faced with problems of soil degradation, soil pollution with chemicals, erosion, as well as desertification due to overgrazing (especially in Argentina).

Environmental problems of coastal zones - pollution of sea water near ports and large cities (caused not least by the release of sewage waste and industrial waste into the ocean), uncontrolled fishing in large quantities.

As throughout the world, in the Andes there is an acute problem of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere (mainly during electricity generation, as well as in ferrous metallurgy enterprises). Oil refineries, oil wells and mines also make a significant contribution to environmental pollution (their activities lead to soil erosion and groundwater pollution; the activities of mines in Patagonia have had a detrimental effect on the biota of the area).

Due to a number of environmental problems, many species of animals and plants in the Andes are in danger of extinction.

Attractions

• Lake Titicaca;
• National Park Lauca;
• Chiloe National Park; to Cape Horn National Park;
• Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the 16th-18th centuries, National Museum of Colombia;
• Quito: Cathedral, Museum musical instruments, Museo Del Banco Central;
• Cusco: Cusco Cathedral, La Campanha Church, Haitun Rumiyoc Street (remains of Inca buildings);
• Lima: archaeological zones of Huaca Huallamarca and Huaca Pucllana, archbishop's palace, church and monastery of San Francisco;
• Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachacamac, ruins of the city of Caral, Sacsayhuaman, Tambomachay, Pukapukara, Quenko, Pisac, Ollantaytambo, Moray, ruins of Pikilyakta.

• The capital of Bolivia, La Paz, is the highest capital in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3600 m above sea level.
• 200 km north of the city of Lima (Peru) are the ruins of the city of Caral - temples, amphitheaters, houses and pyramids. It is believed that Caral belonged to the oldest civilization in America and was built approximately 4000-4500 years ago. Archaeological excavations have shown that the city traded with large areas of the South American continent. It is especially interesting that archaeologists have not found any evidence of military conflicts for approximately a thousand years in the history of Caral.
• One of the most mysterious historical monuments in the world is the monumental archaeological complex of Sacsayhuaman, located northwest of Cusco, at an altitude of approximately 3,700 meters above sea level. The fortress of the same name in this complex is attributed to the Inca civilization. However, it has not yet been possible to establish how the stones of these walls, weighing up to 200 tons and fitted to each other with pinpoint precision, were processed. Also, the ancient system of underground passages has not yet been fully explored.
• The archaeological complex of Moray, located 74 kilometers from Cusco at an altitude of 3,500 meters, still arouses the admiration of not only archaeologists. Here, huge terraces, descending, form a kind of amphitheater. Research has shown that this structure was used by the Incas as an agricultural laboratory, since the different heights of the terraces made it possible to observe and experiment with plants in different climatic conditions. Here, different soils and a complex irrigation system were used; in total, the Incas grew 250 species of plants.

Inca Empire

The Inca Empire in the Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of a highly developed civilization that appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and died at the hands of illiterate aliens, still worries humanity.

The Age of Great Geographical Discovery (XV-XVII centuries) gave European adventurers the opportunity to quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often cruel and unprincipled, the conquistadors flocked to America not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchange between civilizations.

The fact that the papal throne recognized the Indians as spiritual beings in 1537 did not change anything in the methods of the conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the “humane” papal decision, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro had already managed to execute the Inca emperor Atahualpa (1533), defeat the Inca army and capture the capital of the empire, the city of Cusco (1536).

There is a version that at first the Indians mistook the Spaniards for gods. And it is quite possible that the main reason for this misconception was not the white skin of the aliens, not the fact that they sat astride unprecedented animals, and not even the fact that they possessed firearms. The Incas were amazed by the incredible cruelty of the conquistadors.

At the first meeting of Pizarro and Atahualpa, the Spaniards ambushed them, killed thousands of Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like this at all. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifices, believed that human life was the highest gift, and that is why human sacrifice to the gods was the highest form of worship. But to just kill thousands of people who didn’t come for war at all?

There is no doubt that the Incas could offer serious resistance to the Spaniards. After the murder of the captive Atahualpa, for whom the Indians paid a monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to plunder the country, mercilessly melting down works of Inca jewelry into ingots. But Atahualpa’s brother Manco, who they appointed as the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and led the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupac Amaru, was executed by the Viceroy of Peru, Francisco de Toledo, only in 1572, and even after that, the leaders of new uprisings were named after him.

Little has survived from the Inca civilization to the present day - after the death of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both at the hands of the Spaniards and from working in mines, famine, and European epidemics, there was no one to maintain the irrigation systems, high mountain roads, and beautiful buildings in order. The Spaniards destroyed a lot to get building material.

A country whose inhabitants were accustomed to supplies from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagabonds, in long years after the arrival of the conquistadors it became a zone of human disaster.

Different theories place the age of the Andes mountain system from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for the people living in the Andes, the formation of these mountains is still ongoing.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and glacier collapses in the Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin observed the eruption of the Osorno volcano from the island of Chiloe. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the cities of Concepción and Talcahuano and claimed numerous victims. Such events are not uncommon in the Andes.

So, in 1970, a glacier in Peru literally buried the city of Yungay with almost all its inhabitants in seconds, killing about 20,000 people. In 2010, an earthquake in Chile claimed several hundred lives, left millions homeless and caused enormous property damage. In general, serious disasters occur in the Andes with a frightening cyclicity - once every 10-15 years.

The Andes, not to be confused with the Cordillera (link to the article about the Cordillera), is the longest (9000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Aconcagua, 6962 m) mountain systems on Earth, bordering all of South America from the north and west; southern part of the Cordillera. In some places, the Andes reach a width of over 500 km (the greatest width - up to 750 km - in the Central Andes). The average height is about 4000 meters.

With glaciers on its limbs, active volcanoes along the ridge, chains of high snow-capped peaks, wet and dry tropical forests within, deserts and savanna in the lowlands and alpine tundra, the Andes are an extraordinary world of varied landscapes, extreme temperatures and diverse wildlife. Rising above the Pacific coast, this towering 5,000-mile mountain range spans seven countries, from Tierra del Fuego in the rugged south to the Caribbean coast in the north. It contains some of the highest, saltiest, wettest, and driest landscapes on the planet. Penguins, possums, hummingbirds, llamas, pumas, foxes, condors, spectacled bears, and many other species of wildlife inhabit these unlike worlds called the Andes.

Due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. Based on the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The name Andes is most often explained from the Incan word anta - "copper". This etymology is supported by the presence of a “copper belt” in the Andes, stretching for almost 4 thousand km, and the ability of the ancient Incas to smelt copper. According to another etymology of the Andes - from Quechua anti - “east”, which allegedly indicated the position of the mountains relative to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas.

The Andes are a major interoceanic divide; To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin (the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River originate in the Andes), to the west - the Pacific Ocean basin (mostly short ones).

Considering the wide variety of different mountain peaks, both in height and in the level of difficulty of climbing, the Andes are the most popular place for trekking and mountaineering among non-professionals, and the five highest peaks of the Andes look like this:
6962 meters - Aconcagua, Argentina
6891 meters - Ojos del Salado, Chile
6792 meters - Monte Pissis, Argentina
6770 meters - Mercedario, Argentina
6768 meters - Huascaran, Peru

The highest volcano is Llullaillaco (Spanish Llullaillaco), its 6,723 meters, located simultaneously in Argentina and Chile. But it’s easier to climb Cotopaxi (Spanish: Cotopaxi), located in Ecuador and having 5897 meters.
Of the six-thousanders that are the most accessible in terms of money and difficulty, I would highlight